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Cover by Abby Hsiao and Sarah Tani.

MASTHEAD
vol. 16 | 2020–2021
EDITORS-IN-CHIEF
Maia Brown & Shreya Sriram
FACULTY ADVISER
Allen Taflove
MANAGING EDITORS
Leslie Bonilla, Sung Yeon Sally Hong,
Niva Razin
CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
Samantha Smith
ART DIRECTOR
Sarah Tani
DIRECTOR OF OUTREACH
Joy Zheng
DEVELOPMENT DIRECTORS
Lucy Yuan
EDITORS
Catherine Campusano, Rachel Chiu,
Clare Hardiman, Hannah Jiang, Vibhusha
Kolli, Andrew Laeuger, Grace Lee, Jada
Morgan, Prerita Pandya, Joni Rosenberg,
Clare Zhang, Joy Zhao, Kallista Zhuang
DESIGNERS
Siying Luo, Nancy Qian, Abby Hsiao,
Bryan Sanchez, Fiona Wang, Catherine Wu,
Kelly Cloonan, Anthony Tam
OUTREACH TEAM
Gabrielle Tsoi, Alex Solivan, Khaled Abughoush
DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Khaled Abughoush, Ina Huang, John Cao
TABLE OF CONTENTS
06 Letters
Dedications from Editors-in-Chief Maia Brown and Shreya Sriram and Faculty
Adviser Allen Taflove
08 Social Policy
Opinions in Flux: An Exploration of the Perceptions of Concussions in
Youth Sports
24 Feature
Interview with Madeline Baxter about Public Health and Race
28 African American Studies

What is Political Ontology
42 Feature
Interview with Prof. Escobar (Art History) about the impact of COVID-19 on his
current research
44 Sociology
Networking for Gender Justice: Women’s Arts Organizations as Facilitators
of Gender Equity in the Arts Industry
60 Feature
Interview with Patricia Moreno about Therapy-Related Research
During Pandemic
62 Anthropology
Swimming Upstream: Decreasing Salmon Populations in the Columbia River
Basin through Infrastructure and its Impacts on Indigenous Welfare
76 Feature
Interview with Dr. Robert Murphy about Vaccine Development
80 Psychology
Stories of Regret in Late Midlife and their Relation to Psychosocial Adaptation
92 Feature
Deering Observatory and Northwestern Astronomy Research
95 Legal Studies
“Territory Folks Should Stick Together”: The Role of the Law
and the “Other” in Daniel Fish’s Oklahoma!
Feature
Q&A with Ryan Serrano (Slavic Department) about his path from
110
undergrad to grad school
Performance Studies, Art History

“Knowledge and Wonder’s Place, Policy, and Publics: Kerry James
114
Marshall and the Henry E. Legler Library’s Percent-for-Art Commission”
American Studies
A Reckoning with Medicine’s Past
129
Feature
Professor Beth Redbird’s CoronaData U.S. Project
133
Sociology
Designing Equity: Stakeholders’ Perceptions of an Equity Initiative in 136
a California School District
Feature
Portrait of the Child Language Lab
153
Sociology
Developments or Division? The Role Large Public Investment
164
Project Plays in Gentrification: A Case Study on Chicago’s 606
Bloomingdale Bike Trail
Anthropology
Hungry Thirsty Roots: Imagining and Constructing Ethnic Otherness
177
in 1800s England
Feature
Q&A with Morgan Gass about work study labs and student researchers 188
Psychology
Knowing What You Want: Sexual Self-Insight and Attachment Style in
192
Romantic Relationships
Feature
2020 Research Award Winners 205
Contributors
Biographies and interviews from our thesis contributors 208
LETTER FROM THE
ADVISER
LETTER FROM THE
EDITORS
Department of Social Policy
Faculty Adviser: Diane Schanzenbach
Opinions in Flux:
An Exploration of the
Perceptions of Concussions in
Youth Sports
by Andrew Wayne
Introduction such as soccer, hockey, lacrosse, and flag
In 2015, it was estimated that over 1.23 football.3 In the U.S. alone, approximately
million youth ages 6 to 12 regularly par- 1.6 million to 3.8 million sports-related
ticipated in tackle football in the United concussions occur each year across all age
States.1 A dangerous narrative emerges, groups.4 Sports and recreational activities
given that the annual concussion rates comprise a significant portion of annual
among football players ages 5 to 14 are concussions; at the high school level alone,
just above 5%.2 Thus, youth football organized sports are responsible for over
has become a breeding ground for head 62,000 concussions annually.5
trauma. While many see football as a The proliferation and rampant na-
particularly contact-intensive and violent ture of concussions in youth sporting
sport, concussion-related issues are not leagues show that this injury is an issue
limited to football. Indeed, there are that reaches far beyond football and pro-
many sports played by myriad youth that fessional leagues. The abundance and
involve the head as a point of contact, such increasing evidence of risk and both short-
as rugby, soccer, mixed martial arts, and and long-term health consequences seen
baseball. Recent statistics indicate that in in youth sports raises questions about the
youth football, roughly 3–5% of players decision-making processes that go into en-
per season suffer a concussion — the rates rolling a child in youth sports. The present
are virtually identical in other sports, study asks:
(1) How has the emergence and
1 Farrey, T. (2016, April 17). Youth football participation increases in 2015; teen involvement down, data shows. Retrieved from
http://www.espn.com/espn/otl/story/_/id/15210245/slight-one-year-increase-number-youth-playing-football-data-shows
2 Kurs, L. (2018, December 13). New Findings on Concussion in Football’s Youngest Players. Retrieved from https://pulse.seattle-
childrens.org/new-findings-on-concussion-in-footballs-youngest-players/
3 LaBella, C. (2019, April 01). Youth Tackle Football: Perception and Reality. Retrieved from https://pediatrics.aappublications.
org/content/early/2019/03/28/peds.2019-0519
4 Sandel, Natalie & Henry, Luke & French, Jonathan & Lovell, Mark. (2014). Parent Perceptions of Their Adolescent Athlete’s
Concussion: A Preliminary Retrospective Study. Applied neuropsychology. Child. 4. 1-6. 10.1080/21622965.2013.850692.
5 Guilmette TJ, Malia LA, McQuiggan MD. Concussion understanding and management among New England high school football
coaches. Brain Inj. 2007;21(10):1039-1047.
8
“ The proliferation and rampant nature of
concussions in youth sporting leagues show that
this injury is an issue that reaches far beyond
football and professional leagues.
proliferation of popular arenas for youth
”
the research team to avoid limiting partic-
sports shaped instances of and narratives ipants’ responses to a set of predetermined
surrounding head trauma? answers. The survey covered topics such
(2) How do parents frame and un- as the parent’s beliefs about concussions
derstand their child’s involvement in a generally, their child’s specific concussion
sport that could potentially result in head treatment and recovery (if applicable),
trauma? the risk associated with their child’s sport,
(3) How and to what extent do par- whether the sport is safe or can be made
ents process and operationalize the med- safe, the safety of different sports, as well
ical knowledge and messaging from the as their plans for sending their child back
healthcare industry? into the sport (if applicable) and how they
are or are not using medical data released
Methods by the healthcare industry.
Data was collected using an online survey The research team collected 115
of parents of children who participate in surveys to better understand the deci-
youth sports (see Appendix). These parents sion-making process associated with
were chosen to be survey takers because of youth participation in sports. To identify
their proximity to the issues investigated and recruit potential participants, the re-
and their authority over their child’s activ- search team sent surveys to select patient
ities. The survey captured the depth and and employee populations at Lurie Chil-
breadth of parents’ perspectives regarding dren’s Hospital (LCH), a large academic
their child’s involvement in a sport. It also free-standing pediatric hospital in Chicago,
allowed for textual answers that enabled Illinois. The research team also contacted
T Figure 1. Sports Represented in Survey
9
S Figure 2. Concussion Occurrence Amongst Respondents’ Children
various Chicagoland and national sporting respondents indicated that their child had
leagues that have connections to LCH for suffered a diagnosed concussion as a direct
assistance with disseminating the survey to result of a sport that they played, and 86
relevant populations. respondents answered that their child had
not suffered a concussion as a result of
Results playing organized sports (Figure 2).
Thus, approximately one-quarter
Participants
(25.22%) of all respondents captured by
We collected 115 surveys. Of the 115 sur-
the survey have a child that suffered a diag-
veys, 59 respondents identified as female
nosed concussion as a result of participat-
and 56 respondents identified as male.
ing in organized sports. Out of the 29 par-
Seventy of the 115 respondents indicated
ticipants who have a child with a history of
that they have one child, 27 indicated that
concussion, 20 answered that the concus-
they have two children, 13 indicated that
sion occurred within the past 12 months.
they have three children, four indicated
Hence, roughly 17.39% of respondents’
that they have four children, and one
children suffered a concussion within the
indicated that they have six children. The
last season of play. This rate of concussion
115 surveys captured 186 children in total,
per season was far higher than estimates
with an average age of approximately 11.8
from the medical industry. Recent sta-
years. The youngest and oldest children
tistics indicate that in youth football and
represented by this survey were 5 and 29.
many other youth sports, roughly 3–5%
The survey included 18 sports — baseball/
of players per season suffer a concussion.6
tee-ball/softball, football, hockey/field
The rate of concussions uncovered from
hockey, soccer, track & field, volleyball,
the study is particularly worrisome, as
basketball, tennis, golf, swimming, wres-
many concussions go unreported. Experts
tling, competitive cheerleading, lacrosse,
at the University of Pittsburgh Medical
dance, and figure skating (Figure 1).
Center argue that 50% of all concussions go
Analysis undetected and thus unreported.7 Concus-
When asked about concussion history, 29 sion rates appear to be much higher in the
7 UPMC Staff. (2019). Concussion Statistics and Facts | UPMC | Pittsburgh. Retrieved from https://www.upmc.com/services/
sports-medicine/services/concussion/facts-statistics
10
S Figure 3. Mechanism of Concussion Occurence
contemporary world compared to figures diagnosed concussion as a result of partic-

distributed by the medical industry. ipating in organized sports, the child who
Respondents with a child who suf- suffered the concussion went to, on aver-
fered a diagnosed concussion as a result age, 3.69 practices per week. Children who
of participating in organized sports were did not suffer a concussion went to ap-
asked in the survey about the mechanism proximately 2.80 practices per week. The
of injury. Nine respondents indicated that p-value between the two practice groups
the concussion was the result of a collision was less than 0.0001, confirming the dif-
during a game. Five indicated the concus- ference in responses between groups is sta-
sion was due to a collision during practice. tistically significant. Playing any organized
Four indicated that the concussion was sport carries risk of concussion. However,
caused by a fall during a game. Another leagues with multiple practices per week
four indicated that the concussion was due may act as a mechanism enabling addition-
to the subject being struck by an object al concussions and driving up the rate of
during practice. Three indicated that the concussions in youth sports. This finding
concussion was the result of a fall during has also been shown in other studies. Ac-
practice. Three others indicated that the cording to the American Academy of Pedi-
concussion was due to the subject being atrics, 62% of sports-related child injuries
struck by an object during a game. Lastly, occur during practice.8 Given that concus-
one concussion was labeled as “other” (Fig- sions are more prevalent with higher num-
ure 3). bers of practices per week and that 178 out
Overall, 17 concussions occurred in of 186, or 95.69%, of respondents’ children
a game setting, while 12 occurred during attend at least one practice per week, in-
a practice for the sport. When comparing corporating additional practices has a clear
statistics on practice and concussion rates risk in relation to concussion rates.
from the survey, an increase in practices Despite the impacts that concussions
per week appears to be positively correlat- may have later in life, parents in this study
ed with the occurrence of concussions. For seemed unlikely to take extreme action
respondents with a child who suffered a when their child suffered a concussion.
8 National SAFE KIDS Campaign, & American Academy of Pediatrics. (2019, April 17). Sports Injury Statistics. Retrieved from
https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=sports-injury-statistics-90-P02787
11
S Figure 4. Parent Responses Regarding Most Dangerous Youth Sport
Respondents with a child who suffered a the ultimate driving factor in the decision
diagnosed concussion as a result of partici- regarding sport participation. The average
pating in organized sports were asked how recorded response to this question was 8.07
their child’s concussion(s) has impacted with a standard deviation of 0.96. Thus,
their decision to let their child continue the 95% of the data was between 6.15 and 9.99,
sport. The question was answered with a and 99.7% of the data is in the upper half
numerical value between zero and 10, with of the numerical scale used to answer the
zero representing no effect on continued question. This highlights how influential
participation in the sport, five represent- children are in driving decisions regarding
ing some thought about discontinuing par- sport participation, potentially explaining
ticipation in the sport, and 10 representing why some parents may not make extreme
a definitive decision to discontinue the decisions about their child’s participation
sport. The average response from parents in sports following a concussion.
was 4.31, with a standard deviation of 2.12. Misconceptions about the risk of
That is, 95% of the data was centered be- concussion in various sports exist among
tween 0.07 and 8.55. Despite first-hand ex- parents who have children actively par-
posure to the symptoms and the potential ticipating in organized sports. In the sur-
long-term effects of concussions, no parent vey, parents were asked what sport they
reported intending to remove their child believed has the highest concussion rate;
from the sport in which they were injured. 92 parents answered football, eight an-
This finding may be explained by a subse- swered soccer, six answered hockey, three
quent question in the survey. Respondents answered baseball, three answered basket-
were asked about the effect of their child’s ball, and three answered “other” (Figure 4).
wants and/or desires on the child’s selec- Contemporary data indicate that ice
tion of and/or participation in sports. This hockey has the highest concussion rate, at
question was answered using a numerical 0.91 concussions per 1000 athlete-expo-
scale between zero and 10, with zero rep- sures for females and 0.41 concussions per
resenting no effect, and 10 representing 1000 athlete-exposures for males.9 These
9 Hootman, J. M., Dick, R., & Agel, J. (2007). Epidemiology of collegiate injuries for 15 sports: Summary and recommendations
12
“An increase in applied to compare the means of the two
groups, the p-value was less than 0.0001,
practices per week confirming the difference in responses
between groups is statistically significant.
appears to be This indicates that parents of children who
suffered a concussion perceive a higher
positively correlated risk of concussion from their child’s par-
ticipation in a primary youth sport than
with the occurrence parents of children who did not experience
a concussion.
of concussions.” Another question asks about the
effects of four factors on the parent’s de-
values of 0.91 and 0.41 are higher than the
cision involving their child’s/children’s
concussion rate for sports like football,
participation in and/or selection of a sport.
which has a concussion rate of 0.37 per
These four factors were popular media,
1000 athlete-exposures. Thus, just six out
social media, the child’s wants/desires, and
of 115 participants — or 5.21% of all partic-
the safety of the sport, and these questions
ipants — were able to identify the correct
were answered with a numerical value
answer. Approximately 95% of participants
between zero and 10. Zero represented no
answered the question incorrectly, show-
effect, and 10 represented an ultimate driv-
ing how misconceptions regarding sport
ing factor in the decision regarding sport
concussion rates have become entrenched
participation. The responses to this ques-
in contemporary society. Misconceptions
tion highlight a significant divide between
and incorrect narratives around youth
parents who have a child who suffered a
sports can lead to increased injury rates
concussion and parents who do not (Table
and long-term health consequences.
1).
Respondents were asked to rate the
For the first factor, popular media,
safety of their child’s primary sport com-
parents of children who suffered a con-
pared to other youth sports in terms of
cussion recorded an average response of
concussions. This question was answered
4.43, while parents of children who did not
with a numerical value between zero and
suffer a concussion recorded an average
10. Zero represented that the primary
response of 1.86. A two-tailed test revealed
sport the child plays is the safest option
a p-value less than 0.0001, showing the
available, while 10 represented that the
difference in responses between groups is
sport the child plays is the riskiest option
statistically significant. Parents of children
available. Parents with a child who suffered
who suffered a concussion appear to place
a diagnosed concussion differed from oth-
a higher value on the information obtained
er respondents in a multitude of ways. For
from popular media when selecting a sport
example, parents of children who suffered
than parents of children who did not expe-
a concussion recorded an average value of
rience a concussion.
5.82, while parents of children who did not
For the second factor, social media,
suffer a concussion had an average value of
parents of children who suffered a con-
2.90 (Table 1). When a two-tailed test was
cussion recorded an average response of
for injury prevention initiatives. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1941297/
13
4.85, while parents of children who did not to value their child’s desires less in the sport
suffer a concussion recorded an average selection process than parents of children
response of 2.83. The p-value comparing who did not experience a concussion.
the means of the two groups was less than The last factor evaluated by parents
0.0001, confirming the gap in responses was the effect of perceived safety on sport
between groups is statistically significant. selection. Parents of children who suffered
Parents of children who suffered a concus- a concussion recorded an average response
sion appear to place a higher value on the of 6.26, while parents of children who did
information obtained from social media, in not suffer a concussion recorded an aver-
addition to popular media, when selecting age response of 4.07. A two-tailed test and
a sport than parents of children who did a p-value of less than 0.0001 confirmed the
not experience a concussion. difference in responses between groups is
The third factor evaluated by parents statistically significant. Parents of children
was the effect of the child’s wants and de- who suffered a concussion appear to val-
sires on the sport selection process. Parents ue the perceived safety of a sport more in
of children who suffered a concussion re- the sport selection process than parents of
corded an average response of 6.78, while children who did not experience a concus-
parents of children who did not suffer a sion. Overall, this survey shows that many
concussion recorded an average response differences exist in how a parent navigates
of 8.38. When a two-tailed test was applied the sport selection process when compar-
to compare the means of the two groups, ing parents of children who did not experi-
the p-value was less than 0.0001, confirm- ence a concussion and parents of children
ing the difference in responses between who did suffer a concussion.
groups is statistically significant. Parents of An additional finding of this study is
children who suffered a concussion appear that there is a large difference between male
T Table 1. Parent Evaluation of Various Factors Related to Sport Safety Compared by Experience with a Child
Having a Concussion
Parents of children who Parents of children who
Questions (Scale 0-10) Two-tailed t-test
suffered a concussion did not suffer a concussion
Perceived safety of primary

μ = 5.82 μ = 2.90 p < 0.0001
sport
Effect of popular media on

μ = 4.43 μ = 1.86 p < 0.0001
sport participation
Effect of social media on

μ = 4.85 μ = 2.83 p < 0.0001
sport participation
Effect of child’s desires on

μ =6.78 μ = 8.38 p < 0.0001
sport participation
Effect of perceived safety on

μ = 6.26 μ =4.07 p < 0.0001
sport selection
14
“Misconceptions asked to evaluate was social media. When
evaluating the effect of social media on the
and incorrect sport selection process, females record-
ed an average value of 4.71, while males
narratives around recorded an average value of 1.56. The
p-value between males and females for this
youth sports can question was less than 0.0001, confirm-
ing the difference in responses between
lead to increased groups is statistically significant. This find-
ing suggests that male survey respondents
injury rates and rarely use information from social media
long-term health to aid in selecting a sport for their child,
while female survey respondents rely on
consequences.” it to some extent. Interestingly, despite
the widespread use of social media today,
and female parents in the way in which popular media still has a greater impact on
they select sports for their children. When the decision-making of parents regarding
asked about the impact of four different sports selection for their children.
factors — popular media, social media, the The third factor in this question is
child’s wants/desires, and the safety of thethe effect of the child’s wants and desires.
sport — males and females provided far Female parents recorded an average value
different responses. These questions were of 8.05, while male parents recorded an
answered with a numerical value between average value of 7.81. For both males and
zero and 10. Zero represented no effect, females, the child’s wants and desires seem
and 10 represented an ultimate driving to be a driving factor in the sports selection
factor in the decision regarding sport par- process, and the average response for this
ticipation. The responses to this question question is the highest numerically, for
highlight a significant divide between male both males and females, of the four factors.
and female parents (Table 2). Lastly, the fourth factor gauges the
For the first factor, popular media, effect of the perceived safety of the sport.
female respondents recorded an average For female respondents, the average value
response of 5.16, while males recorded an was 6.06, while males recorded an average
average response of 3.44. When a two- value of 3.92. The p-value between males
tailed test was applied to compare the and females for this question was less
means of the two groups, the p-value was than 0.0001, confirming the difference in
less than 0.0001, confirming the difference responses between groups is statistically
in responses between groups is statisticallysignificant. When parents select a sport for
significant. This finding signifies that fe-their child, it seems that female respondents
male respondents place a higher value on care and value more the perceived safety of
the information obtained from popular the sport than their male counterparts.
media (i.e. news, journals, online news)
when selecting a sport for their child than Discussion
male respondents. This study of parents of children in youth
The second factor that parents were sports has highlighted new information
15
Questions (Scale 0-10) Male Female Two-tailed t-test
Effect of popular media on

μ = 3.44 μ = 5.16 p < 0.0001
sport participation
Effect of social media on

μ = 1.56 μ = 4.71 p < 0.0001
sport participation
Effect of child’s desires on

μ = 7.81 μ = 8.05 p = 0.4862
sport participation
Perceived safety of primary

μ =3.92 μ = 6.06 p < 0.0001
sport
S Table 2. Parent Evaluation of Various Factors Related to Sport Safety Compared by Gender
about how parents perceive sport safety, of respondents reporting a child who suf-
what information parents use to make fered a concussion within the last season
decisions about their child’s participation of play. This study also demonstrated a
in youth sports, and how these factors correlation between increased numbers
differ by the parent’s gender. Specifically, of practices per week and concussion oc-
the results of the survey outline many currences. Finally, the survey showed that
key findings about the perception of con- many parents are not aware of the concus-
cussions in contemporary youth sports. sion rates across various youth sports.
When divided into different groups and While the results are promising, the
compared against one another, parents study has limitations. Concussions and
seemed to hold vastly different ideas re- parent perceptions are global issues, and
garding concussions and sport selection. this study was only able to capture under
When compared by gender or concussion 200 children in the Chicagoland area. The
history, parents displayed statistically survey data may also not be more repre-
significant differences in factors, such sentative of a larger population because
as social/popular media influence when the sample was partially recruited through
deciding a sport, perception of the safety the connections between LCH and sport-
of different sports, and how much their ing leagues and is therefore not truly
child’s wants and desires affect the sport random. Additionally, parent opinion is a
selection process. This study also shows an fluid variable that can change substantially
alarming disconnect between concussion at any given moment. These surveys only
rate estimates from the medical industry captured parents’ opinions at one point in
and real-world rates. Recent statistics in- time.
dicate that in many youth sports, approx- However, the greatest limitation of
imately 3–5% of players per season suffer this study is the sample collection proce-
a concussion.10 The survey population dure. Due to the study method employed,
reflected a much higher rate, with 17.39% the team was unable to capture informa-
16
“This study also shows an alarming disconnect between
concussion rate estimates from the medical industry and
real-world rates.”
tion about parents who removed their on concussions leads to misinformation

children from sports due to concussions. and false narratives. These misconceptions
As the team only surveyed parents who and incorrect narratives regarding youth
have a child who actively participates in sports can lead to increased injury rates
sport, parents who removed their children and long-term health consequences.
from sports due to concussion could not be Further research regarding education
assessed. Furthermore, children drop out and evaluation could reduce these miscon-
of sports for a multitude of other reasons, ceptions. Providing parents with contem-
such as their performance in the sport, porary statistics regarding concussion rates
their lack of desire to continue, or costs as- and examining how misconceptions persist
sociated with the sport. This study was un- could allow for more information on how
able to capture these parents who no lon- parents of athletes digest information and
ger have children participating in sports. select and/or avoid various sports. Further
Finally, the high rate of concussions found research could also examine how concus-
in this study may reflect selection bias. It sion rates are impacted by additional train-
is possible that parents of children with ing and knowledge on concussion symp-
recent concussions were more inclined to toms and recognition among coaches and
complete the survey. parents. Lastly, additional research could
estimate the effects of concussion-related
Conclusion legislation and how adherence to current
There is still much to learn regarding legislation affects youth sport participation
traumatic brain injuries and associated and concussion rates. Regardless of the ex-
conditions, such as chronic traumatic act approach used, it is clear that additional
encephalopathy. In addition, concussions reliable information is needed in order
are difficult to diagnose, as many of the for parents to make the most informed
symptoms can be invisible or connect to a decisions regarding participation in youth
plethora of other illnesses.11 Compounding sports and associated concussion risk.
the issue further is the fact that an objective sport for their child, it seems that female
test to diagnose concussions does not exist. respondents care and value more the per-
Instead, medical professionals must rely on ceived safety of the sport than their male
symptoms and patient history to make the counterparts. ■
diagnosis.12 The lack of general knowledge
11 American Association of Neurological Surgeons. (2019). Sports-related Head Injury. Retrieved from https://www.aans.org/
Patients/Neurosurgical-Conditions-and-Treatments/Sports-related-Head-Injury
12 Choe, M. C., MD, & Giza, C. C., MD. (2015). Diagnosis and Management of Acute Concussion. Seminars in Neurology, 35(1),
29-41. Retrieved from https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/840665_4.
17
Appendix
Data Collection Instrument
IRB 2019-3043 - Parental Opinion on Concussions in Youth Sports
PI: Dr. Cynthia LaBella
Research Coordinators/Primary Contacts:
1. Andrew Wayne, Orthopaedics, andrewwayne2020@u.northwestern.edu
2. Sina Malekian, Department of Surgery, smalekian@luriechildrens.org
3. Carly Strohbach, Department of Surgery, cstrohbach@luriechildrens.org
4. Jamie Burgess, Department of Surgery, jburgess@luriechildrens.org
5. Gina Johnson, Department of Surgery, ginajohnson2020@u.northwestern.edu
Survey Questions to be Asked

1. Please indicate your preferred gender identity
a. Answered via a textbox that the participant will fill
2. How many children do you have?
a. Answered via multiple choice selections:
i. 1
ii. 2
iii. 3
iv. 4
v. 5 or more
3. Please list the age (s) of your child/childrenWhat was the purpose of this training? What did it focus on?
4. What sport (s) do/does your child/children play? (Please select more than one if applicable)
i. Basketball
ii. Baseball/tee-ball/softball
iii. Football
iv. Soccer
v. Volleyball
vi. Track & field
vii. Hockey/field hockey
viii. Tennis
ix. Golf
x. Other (please list)
5. Please identify the primary sport your child/children plays (For “primary sport” please identify the sport that your child/you
put the most effort or time into)
i. Basketball
iii. Football
iv. Soccer
v. Volleyball
vi. Track & field
viii. Tennis
ix. Golf
6. How long has your child/children played in their primary sport? Please list the number of years or months
i. 0-3 Months
ii. 3-6 Months
iii. 6-9 months
iv. 9-12 Months
v. 1-3 Years
vi. 3-5 Years
vii. 5-7 Years
viii. 7+ Years
7. Identify the closest match to your child’s future expectations in their primary sport
a. Answered via multiple choice selections
i. Playing for exercise
ii. Playing for recreational purposes
18
iii. Playing to make social connections
iv. Aiming to play/currently playing at a high school level
v. Aiming to play at the university level
vi. Aiming to play professionally
8. Has your child/have any of your children suffered a concussion, that was diagnosed by a medical professional, as a result of the
sport (s) they play? A concussion is defined as: an injury to the brain or spinal cord due to jarring from a blow, fall, or other
impact that results in a temporary impairment of brain function.
i. Yes
ii. No
9. What was the treatment plan prescribed for the head injury/injuries suffered? (Medication, time out of the sport/school, etc.)
Please describe the treatment plans for each head injury suffered
10. How long ago did the head injury occur? (If multiple head injuries occurred, please select the most recent head injury)
i. In the last 3 months
ii. 3-6 months ago
iii. 6-12 months ago
iv. 1-2 years ago
v. 2+ years ago
11. How long did your child experience symptoms following the head injury?
i. 1-7 days post injury
ii. 7-14 days post injury
iii. 2-6 weeks post injury
iv. 6-12 weeks post injury
v. 12+ weeks post injury
12. What specifically caused the head injury?
i. A fall in game
ii. A fall in game
iii. A collision in practice
iv. A collision in game
v. Being struck by an object in game
vi. Being struck by an object in practice
vii. Other (please list)
13. How have your child’s injury/injuries impacted your child’s participation in their primary sport?
a. Answered on a sliding scale from 0 to 4 with the labels:
i. 0: No change in participation in the sport
ii. 1: Slight decrease in participation in the sport
iii. 2: Moderate decrease in participation in the sport
iv. 3: Significant decrease in participation in the sport
v. 100: Discontinued participation in the sport
14. How have your child’s injury/injuries impacted your decision to let your child participate in their primary sport?
i. 0 - No effect on continued participation in the sport
ii. 5 - Some thought about discontinuing participation in the sport
iii. 10 - definitive decision on discontinuing the sport
15. Do you believe the primary sport your child plays is safe for youth?
i. Yes
ii. No
16. What changes could make the primary sport your child plays safer in terms of head trauma? (You may select more than one
option)
i. Rule Changes (i.e. removing elements of contact)
ii. Additional training for coaches/supervisors
iii. Presence of an athletic trainer at each game/practice
iv. Redesign of equipment
v. Redesign of concussion screening equipment
vi. Better coaching of proper techniques
vii. Safer actions conducted by the players
viii. Other (Please List)
17. What factor, in your eyes, is the biggest roadblock to implementing changes to improve the safety in the primary sport your
child plays?
i. Cost
ii. Difference of opinion from involved parties
iii. Resistance to change from involved parties
iv. Time
19
v. Lack of other resources
vi. Difficulty enforcing changes
vii. Other (please list)
18. For all the sports your child plays combined, how many practices do they attend per week?
i. 0 Practices Per Week
ii. 1 Practice Per Week
iii. 2 Practices Per Week
iv. 3 Practices Per Week
v. 4 Practices Per Week
vi. 5 Practices Per Week
vii. 6 Practices Per Week
viii. 7+ Practices Per Week
19. What specifically do you think contributes the most to head injury in the primary sport your child plays?
i. Nature of the sport
ii. How the game is played
iii. How practices are run
iv. Lack of supervision of coaches
v. Lack of training/knowledge on head injury amongst players and coaches
vi. Faulty equipment
vii. Rules of the game
viii. Other (Please List)
20. In comparison to other youth sports, how safe do you believe the primary sport your child plays is in terms of concussions?
i. 0- The primary sport my child plays is the SAFEST opinion available
ii. 5- The primary sport my child plays is about average in terms of safety
iii. 10 - The primary sport my child plays is the RISKIEST sport available to youth
21. How much of an effect have the following factors had on your decision involving your child’s/children’s participation and/or
selection in sport?
a. Answered via 2 sliding scales from 0-10:
i. The first scale asks: please indicate the extent of the effect popular media (i.e. news, Facebook, Twitter) has had on
your child’s section and/or participation in sport
ii. The second scale asks: Please indicate the extent of the effect social media (i.e. Facebook, Twitter) has had on your
child section and/or participation in sport
iii. The third scale asks: please indicate the extent of the effect the desire/wants of your child/children has had on your
child’s section and/or participation in sport
iv. Please indicate the extent of the effect the safety of the sport has had on your child’s selection and/or participation
in sport
b. The 2 scales have the labels:
i. 0 - My child’s participation and/or selection in sports was not impacted at all by this factor
ii. 5 - My child’s participation and/or selection in sports was somewhat impacted by this factor
iii. 10 - My child’s participation and/or selection in sports was impacted greatly by this factor
22. Which sport (amongst youth) do you believe has the highest concussion rate?
i. Basketball
iii. Football
iv. Soccer
v. Volleyball
vi. Track & field
viii. Tennis
ix. Golf
20
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23
Q
&
A
Interview with
Madeline Baxter
By Rachel Chiu and Jada Morgan
Madeline Baxter is a third-year undergraduate pursuing majors in

global health and in learning and organizational change as well as
a minor in business institutions. Baxter is passionate about social
impact work and learning about the healthcare system and its
intersections with the social determinants of health. The Journal
sat down with Baxter to learn more about her experiences in
finding and participating in social justice research projects as an
undergraduate.
24 FEATURE
[This interview has been edited for clarity
and brevity.]
“I have a really
Why did you decide to pursue
hard time learning
research specifically addressing about disparities
social justice work?
A lot of my interests right now revolve
and not doing
around global health. I’m greatly
influenced by the content of the courses
anything to actively
in the global health department as well
as my experiences as a Black woman. It
mitigate those
feels very superficial to say, “I have all this disparities.”
knowledge, but I’m just going to sit with
(CPHD). I’m helping them lead some
it and wait for four years and then maybe
research in East Garfield Park, which
decide to do something about it.” I have a
is a neighborhood of Chicago with the
really hard time learning about disparities
worst African American female maternal
and not doing anything to actively mitigate
mortality statistics. We’re researching in
those disparities.
the area more and helping to support the
However, I don’t know that doing social community and citizens.
justice work has ever been my ultimate life
goal. It’s always been something that I’ve How has it been working on
been passionate about in order to give back these large, multifaceted projects
to the community from which I’ve come. as an undergraduate?
It’s just who I am, what I care about doing,
I was the only undergraduate with the
and what I want to do with the education
Global Health Institute for the first
that I’m getting right now.
six months. That was definitely really
Give us an overview of your difficult because we went through the
shift with COVID-19; it was really tough
research experience.
to get the lay of the land. I had a hard
For nine months in 2020, I worked with time understanding how the organization
the Northwestern Global Health Institute was run and what was expected of me,
in their Department of Education. I worked given that I was never meeting anybody
on producing a descriptive analysis, which face-to-face besides my boss, so trying
is a type of statistical modeling. I helped to find my place in the organization was
translate qualitative data and make it definitely more difficult.
quantitative in order to advocate for more
funding and really show the success of the How did you go about
Institute. It was really exciting to be a part finding these social justice
of something so tangible and see immediate research opportunities?
effects of it all.
I spent a lot of time researching different
Right now, I’m getting ready to work with organizations in Chicago and began cold-
the Chicago Public Health Department emailing people. For example, to get in
FEATURE 25
“What I contribute I’ve been trying to act on the things
that I find the most important and help
in the long run is a alleviate the racial, economic, and health
disparities that we spend so much time
sense of optimism talking about in the classroom.
[by] being a new What is the most rewarding

aspect of doing hands-
person who says, on social justice work?
‘I care about this The biggest things that I’ve gained are
the out-of-the-classroom knowledge and
work; I’m willing to also the mentors. I can learn more about
these disparities and how to work against
do whatever it takes them while also gaining connections with
people who care about me getting the right
to help it happen.’” experience and education. My supervisors
in both of those research positions have
touch with the brilliant woman who I’m
really been ahead of the game in terms of
working for right now, I messaged her
being women in the global health field, and
on LinkedIn. She’s the medical director of
they’ve helped lead me through the process
the CPHD, and she got back to me almost
and also connect me with the right people.
immediately. We were able to coordinate
a time to talk, and seeing as our interests
How has getting involved in this
aligned, they put me in their HR system —
type of research during your
the rest was history.
undergraduate years impacted
What do you think these your desire to get involved in
organizations really value about research after you graduate?
undergraduate students and Getting involved in social justice research
specifically you? What do you think has shown me what I don’t want to do as
you contribute in the long run? well as the research that I’d be interested
in doing in the future. My first experience
I would hope that what I contribute
with the Global Health Institute was a
in the long run is a sense of optimism
lot of data analysis, and I realized that it’s
[by] being a new person that says, “I
one thing to learn about global health
care about this work; I’m willing to do
disparities in classrooms and another to
whatever it takes to help it happen.” I
just write down numbers pertaining to
think particularly in global health, there’s
grants. Those are two very different things
so much work that needs to be done
especially in the context of Chicago. in terms of quantifying the work.
It’s really hard to take part in all that My current research interests are in
work by yourself; I hope to equalize quantifying the disparities along racial
the burden they’re carrying right now lines in cities like Chicago and other urban
to start to work against these disparities. areas. I’m interested in breaking that down
26 FEATURE
further and understanding the function justice workers and researchers are really
of the neighborhood and where these excited to see young people who care so
arbitrary neighborhood lines are as well much and have the tactical skills to impact
as how that impacts people for the rest of the work.
their lives. I’d like to focus on interacting
with the individuals that these disparities How do you balance social
impact and working hands-on with justice research work with on-
these communities, rather than simply the-ground activism work?
quantifying the research on the back end.
In terms of balancing them, I spend more
time on the research right now than on
Do you have any advice for
on-the-ground activism just because
undergraduates who want to
that’s how I am. Currently, it’s really hard
get involved in the field but to engage in activism because it’s hard to
are intimidated by the amount meet people as a result of the COVID-19
of opportunities or needing pandemic, so I think my answer is skewed
to reach out to independent in terms of what facilities I have access to.
organizations on their own? Both research and activism actionably
My biggest advice is always to just ask. The impact the world and make it a better
worst thing that can happen is that they place. I think as long as we’re intentional
don’t email you back. In terms of mitigating in the way in which we walk through life
that fear and intimidation, I think that and interact with people, we can create
there’s so much work to be done, and social the positive change that we want to make.
Madeline Baxter’s success in finding and pursuing research demonstrates

how important it is that students continue to seek out opportunities to gain
knowledge and create tangible change in our communities. Baxter encourages
students to be bold in reaching out to individuals in the professional world
who share their research interests, as they are waiting for undergraduates
to share their insights as much as the undergraduates are hoping to learn
from the professionals in the field. Through participating in social justice
research, one can develop valuable skills and connections that will carry
throughout the remainder of one’s professional career. ■
FEATURE 27
Department of African American Studies
Faculty Adviser: Marquis Bey

by John Sweeney
Preface Black theory excludes her and her experi-

As I have progressed in this paper, I have ence. I cannot leave that be, so I must act,
asked myself, and been pushed to seriously even if I may not have an impact.
think by my partner, about the ethicality I also recognize that I have privilege
of writing such a large work on matters of as a white cisgender straight male in this
incredible violence to which I am not sub- racial cisheteropatriarchy, and when I
ject. I especially need to take into account speak, I am not giving space for those who
how my discussions of race are entering are actually subjected to these systems to
predominantly Black discourses, since my speak. Additionally, there is the great risk
presence in these spaces may contribute of liberal intentions that are in reality
violence toward Black people.1 As my part- voyeurism, which will always lead to an
ner has reminded me, it is white fragility unempathetic engagement, as the theory
that orders me to remain silent on these turns into another game. If I am guilty of
questions, and so I take inspiration from this, I deserve to be called on it. I hope to
her and Jennifer Nash, in her elaboration move through this entire paper in an eth-
of bravery, to address this directly. ical manner — that is, with humility, re-
As Barbara Christian, in her ground- spect, deep engagement, intention toward
breaking article “The Race for Theory,” dialogue, and realizing that I am no one’s
asks white academics and herself, “For savior and that this is not an intellectual
whom are we doing what we are doing exercise. I write about violence because
when we do literary criticism?”2 I write for this violence continues, and I cannot turn
my partner, because the theory that I en- away.
counter that does not broadly engage with
1 While this is not the purpose of this paper, extremely important work on the intramural dimensions
of race and ideology within the Black community and with other people of color has been created. See
Michelle (2020).
2 See Christain (1988, pg 77).
28
“
The terms of political ontology are opened up by
a robust engagement between different traditions
that all maintain a certain critical attitude towards
the current political ontology.
Introduction ly-supporting. This paper argues that the

”
This paper aims to enter into a complex terms of political ontology are opened up
and ongoing conversation among critical by a robust engagement between different
theorists regarding Black sociality, anti- traditions that all maintain a certain crit-
blackness, and political ontology.3 Black ical attitude towards the current political
studies has participated in an “ontological ontology.
turn,” often expressed in the afropessimist To begin, since this is a work of polit-
versus Black optimist debates. This paper ical ontology that hopes to make the topic
will first engage with Black nihilist and more accessible and decipher some of the
afropessimist works to tease out what is jargon, we shall start with a brief overview
actually being discussed and then engage of the afropessimists Frank Wilderson and
their work in conversations with progres- Jared Sexton. Unfortunately, this deci-
sive critical theorists — particularly Oliver phering will not be simple, as, “‘Ontology’
Marchart, Fred Moten, and Enrique Dus- as an analytical category is used in different
sel — to open up the philosophical terrain ways by different authors.”5 We could easi-
of political ontology. ly add metaphysics, race, and gender to that
This paper critically analyzes the description.
work of political ontology produced in
recent years, and it heeds a warning from Brief Overview of Wilderson
one of Calvin Warren’s recent articles: and Sexton
Most Black studies “neglect the ontologi- This section will unpack some of the
cal dimension of antiblackness, in order to grammar Warren and afropessimists use
provide resolution and resolvability of the for those of us who do not have as much
tension between blackness and being.”4 In familiarity with it.
order to avoid this pitfall, this paper sets First, we can begin by noting that the
out to center the ontological dimension similarities Wilderson and Sexton bring
of antiblackness, in the post-Heidegge- as afropessimists are the focus on social
rian sense that Warren has in mind. It death, the centering on the political pro-
is more than possible that this paper sets duction of ontology, the orientation to ful-
out to do much more than one paper can ly be with antiblackness, and the emphasis
coherently accomplish, but I believe these on world-ending practices as the only
moving parts are all essential and mutual-
3 I am profoundly influenced by the work of scholar Christina Sharpe, and I follow her notations of
Black, blackness, and antiblackness. See Sharpe (2016).
4 See Warren (2017c, pg 272).
5 See Burman (2016, pg 7).
29
solution. On social death, they are very im- use the prefix “political” is to mark the con-
pacted by the work of sociologist Orlando tingent,9 contested, and historical nature
Patterson, notably quite the conservative, of that which we are labelling ontology.
who developed his notion of social death to Warren again helpfully puts it, “Afro-pes-
define the position of enslavement, which simists demystify ontology, stripping it of
has three factors to it: (1) natal alienation, its assumed ‘purity’ in the Western tradi-
which means removal from the communi- tion, and expose ontology as the product of
ty in which one is born; (2) general dishon- political processes.”10 The dominant order
or, which refers to quite literally a status of presents itself as natural, but afropessimists
constant disrespect and devaluement; and point out that it is naturalized through
(3) permanent violence and domination.6 politics.
Wilderson and Sexton argue that social Thirdly, afropessimists insist on fully
death is the constitutive feature of black- confronting the whole terror of antiblack-
ness, and is the crucial foil to the ontologi- ness. As Sexton writes, “For the imme-
cal production of the Human in modernity. diate question facing such judgment is:
This leaves Wilderson and Sexton to sep- resistance or survival in the face of what,
arate gender and other categories such as precisely?”11 This intense focus on thema-
class out from race, and label race as the tizing the structures of abjection through
most fundamental category.7 As Warren antiblackness has misled some into believ-
succinctly puts it, Wilderson and Sexton ing afropessimists do not believe in Black
“would argue for the non-ontology of black- social life; but this is a mischaracterization,
ness. For Afro-Pessimists, the grammar as Sexton explains, “Nothing in afro-pes-
of bio-futurity and political programs will simism suggests that there is no black (so-
do very little to bring blacks into the fold cial) life, only that black life is not social life
of humanity; in fact, this grammar is the in the universe formed by the codes of state
source of black suffering and dread.”8 The and … the modern world system.”12 In the
abjection of Blackness preconditions and dominant world system, which has been
foils the Human for afropessimists. constituted by colonialism,13 antiblackness
Afropessimists also focus on the po- does not recognize Black life as social life
litical production of ontology, which is at all.
what we should understand the concept of Lastly, afropessimists explicitly con-
political ontology to be doing. That is, to tend that in a world sutured by antiblack-
6 See Patterson (1982, pg 13).
7 See Wilderson (2010, pg 23).
8 See Warren (2017a, pg 220). Afropessimists sometimes use language like “the non-ontology of black-
ness,” and while I of course got the gist, at another level I felt this is a very different usage of the concept
of ontology than even other places in their work. I would say that “non-ontology” can be roughly trans-
lated as non-being, as imposed by the being of whiteness.
9 I want to clarify that when I say contingent, I do not mean it in contradiction with afropessimists who
say anti-Blackness is non-contingent and necessary in a world that is invested in the Human, but rather
simply that this ontology is not ‘natural’ or divine, and instead the product of human struggle.
10 See Warren (2017a, pg 223).
11 See Sexton (2016a, pg 19).
12 See Sexton (2016b, 29); also see Ziyad (2016) for real world application of this perspective. Thank you,
Dr. Marquis, Bey for sending me this.
13 See, Silva, (2016).
30
ness, only world-destroying measures are in white philosophical background, and
fundamentally worth pursuing. As Wilder- even those of us who are, the distinction
son writes, “Frantz Fanon came closest to between metaphysics and ontology is
the only image of sowing and harvesting either fundamentally unclear or wholly
that befits this book. Quoting Aimé Cé- non-existent, and their definitions are
saire, he urged his readers to start ‘the end often vague and unelaborated.15 However,
of the world,’ the ‘only thing … worth the Martin Heidegger has a fundamentally dif-
effort of starting,’ a shift from horticulture ferent understanding of metaphysics that
to pyrotechnics.”14 As he makes clear, the is pejorative in nature; in fact, he argues
only thing worth pursuing is the destruc- metaphysics is properly understood as
tion of the world, not piecemeal reforms domination and violence. While Warren
or anything else, literally, an investment in does not uncritically engage with Heideg-
pyrotechnics. ger, Warren does agree that metaphysics
Afropessimists have had a strong ef- is violent; this paper is an attempt to tease
fect on many thinkers over the years, so out how we could take this seriously and
this will help us transition to delving more move forward in dialogue.
deeply into the language/grammar of po- With (b), Warren takes as a key point
litical ontology. for him, as do other afropessimists, that
blackness is uniquely placed as abjection in
Brief Introduction to the relation to whiteness, and all other racial
Language/Grammar of locations are able to take recourse from
Warren gratuitous violence and towards ontology.
Some have taken issue with this, particu-
Brief Notes larly those in critical settler colonial studies
This paper hopes to avoid the potential who argue for a more complicated organi-
pitfalls that others may have encountered zation of race where Native peoples are in
in attempting to engage with Warren’s a different relation but are not necessarily
work, specifically: (a) engaging Warren’s privileged in this difference. However, this
work on Warren’s terms, which is to say, position is not one I am fundamentally
post-Heideggerian ontological terms; and wedded to, and I think to argue for it would
(b) conceding without argument that, warrant an entire paper in its own right
compared to other racial categories, Black- and would result in a failed dialogue in the
ness is unique in its constitution under other ontological parts of the discourse in
colonialism as absolute abjection. In order which I want to engage.
to allow greater dialogue, with (a), I hope Before proceeding much further, it is
to avoid a potential counterargument that relevant to note another thing, as a signpost.
Warren may deploy against those who Frantz Fanon has been a central thinker for
do not start from a strictly (post-)Heide- afropessimism, and as a Black psychoana-
ggarian perspective, which is that a given lytic thinker (the larger discourse I will not
engagement relies on the antiblack struc- take up here16), Fanon has an important
ture of metaphysics. For many not steeped impact on my thinking. However, I have
14 See Wilderson (2010, pg 337).

15 See Wiley (2016, pg 20).
16 Psychoanalysis has been seen as a crucial site of academic engagement for those in the afropessimist
31
chosen to elide focusing on Fanon, and
therefore I hope to avoid engaging with
“To use the prefix
the Fanon wars, to borrow a frame from
Jennifer Nash.17 In my analysis, the Fanon
‘political’ is to mark
wars describe the “discursive, political, and
theoretical battles” marked by an affective
the contingent,
posture of defensiveness that emerge over contested, and
divergent readings of Fanon’s work.18 Part
of this defensive posture is created by the historical nature of
elevation of Fanon’s work to, borrowing
another phrase from Nash,19 the status of that which we are
directed by the Holy Spirit; that is, if Fanon
says it, it is the fundamental truth. To be
labelling ontology.”
clear, I think of Fanon as an important metaphysics.”20 With the ontological turn
philosopher, but I also believe that schol- on Black study, which is to say study, War-
ars like David Marriott, Frank Willderson ren’s mediation is a relevant and unique
III, Jared Sexton, and Calvin Warren are point in this trajectory, and thus, I believe
vastly beyond my level of studying Fanon, it should be engaged. However, I am wor-
and in their intense investment, Fanon as a ried the obscurity of Warren’s reliance on
figure in some ways has become overdeter- technical philosophical language primarily
mined. Thus, I believe it would cause more derived from Heidegger has made any en-
obstruction than care for dialogue were gagement on equal terms difficult.
this paper to invest in a different reading Unfortunately, as in all languages,
of Fanon over these thoughtful scholars. words can only be understood with refer-
Key Terms: Metaphysics, Ontological Dif- ence to other words in that language, and
ference, Ontics, Ontological so it is impossible to coherently define one
With those disclaimers out of the way, concept at a time. Instead, we must attempt
we can begin to unpack the key terms in to explore one ensemble of related con-
Warren’s thought. Calvin Warren relies cepts at a time.
crucially on German philosopher Martin The first ensemble of concepts to be
Heidegger to help develop his under- unpacked are (1) metaphysics and (2) the
standing of ontology. Warren even goes ontological difference, between (3) ontics21
as far as to say Heidegger “more than any (beings) and (4) the ontological (Being),
philosopher understood the violence of because this is the origin of Heidegger’s
tradition. However, I must confess I know next to nothing about the white psychoanalytic tradition of
Lacan, Zizek, and Freud, and I have (perhaps, ironically) an aversion to it. Regardless, my fundamental
lack – pun intended – of understanding of psychoanalysis has led me to exclude it almost entirely. How-
ever, Black psychoanalysis, such as through Fanon, has much more sway for me, and so we might have
some throughout the work.
17 See Nash (2019, pg 35) regarding the intersectionality wars.
18 See Nash (2019, pg 36).
19 See Nash (2018).
20 See Warren (2016b, pg 58).
21 I use “ontics” instead of “ontic” because it does not follow for me that ontic is supposed to be the same
as beings and politics and doesn’t have an “s” at the end.
32
project and his continued relevance to nail,” a helpful metaphor. This objectifica-
Warren. Heidegger, and therefore War- tion is understood by Heidegger and those
ren, is very precise in his understanding that have followed him as violent, and since
of metaphysics, and we should first note the main tool of metaphysics is objectifica-
that for Heidegger, metaphysics and on- tion, therefore, “The aim of metaphysics is
tology are absolutely not interchangeable. domination.”26 Warren succinctly defines
Heidegger introduces (2) the ontological it: Metaphysics should be understood “as
difference, to distinguish what he calls the constituting a particularly violent epis-
ontological and ontics. (3) Ontics is not a teme, one that reduces the grandeur of
common word at all. It roughly translates being into a scientific plaything — an object
to a focus on empirical references — which of rationality, calculation, instrumentaliza-
is to say that which can be measured or tion, and schematization.”27 Metaphysics
standardized objectively,22 with beings then reproduces violence, and ontology moves
referring to actual wholes in their material away from this objectification (ontology
sense — and is the study of being-qua-un- will be problematized later).
derstanding.23 In contradistinction with While we have a brief summary of key
this idea of ontics, (4) the ontological refers terms in Warren, I still think that we are
to the level of Being, a transcendental level, at a disadvantage in being able to robust-
being-qua-being, and ground.24 Ontics and ly engage in this post-Heideggerian dis-
the ontological are related but different course. This paper hopes to remedy this by
levels from each other, as the ontological discussing three broad thinkers — who are
difference signifies. Put another way, the themselves post-Heideggerians and deeply
“Ontological difference marks a distinction invested in political ontology — to give us
between Being (capitalized) as event, hap- a literature review so that we can see what
pening, or opening and being (lowercase) moves are possible while being faithful to
as a metaphysical object, a grounding, and a post-Heideggerian ontological theory.
representation.”25 First, I will cover post-foundational politi-
Metaphysics can be understood as cal thought, specifically Oliver Marchart,28
a system that attempts to get at Being who are white theorists who are explicitly
through ontics, the empirical, and forgets motivated by Heidegger’s work, but want
the level of the ontological. Metaphysics, to rehabilitate it to move against his Na-
because it only thinks in the register of on- zism and make it more explicitly political.
tics, can only think through things that are Second, I will cover philosopher Enrique
objects; in this way, metaphysics requires Dussel, who is a landmark philosopher
objectification and schematization of ev- of liberation in Latin America and who
erything in order to explain the world. To himself is deeply invested in Heidegger
understand this, I find the saying, “when and ontology, but is explicitly decolonial in
you’re a hammer, everything looks like a purpose. And lastly, I will cover the phi-
22 See Marchart (2007, pg 15).
25 See Warren (2019, pg 48).
28 Who is explicitly interested in Ernesto Laclau’s political ontology in his book Thinking Antagonism.
33
losophy of the eminent Fred Moten, who “nothing” can be thought through, (2)
again is deeply impacted by Heidegger and elaborating that at the ontological level all
works to revitalize ontology. grounds are politically produced, and (3)
giving an account of how grounding un-
Organizing Definitions folds, through their conception of politics.
In reviewing literature, I have felt that dif- (1) The ontological ground of the
ferent authors employ different meanings social is founded upon contingent, tem-
of ontology. I have delineated three dif- porary, and malleable grounds that are
ferent meanings of the word below. This ultimately founded upon nothing.30 As
format is regrettably sharp in its format; Warren explains, post-foundationalism
however, it is important to be specific in centers on a “lack of an absolute ground
the meanings of ontology throughout this for society. This is not to suggest that there
paper: is no ground or that one can offer no claim
• Ontology (1): dominant ontology, and to a foundation; rather, the ground of the
therefore usually unmarked as such social, the foundation, is weak, contingent,
since it is hegemonic, which produc- and not absolute.”31 Taking this thought
es white people as having Being and seriously, there is no recourse to some
Black people as having non-Being ground that itself does not require ground-
• Ontology (2): the ontology produced ing. This provides a fruitful orientation for
outside the dominant ontology understanding the social (society), not as
• Ontology (3): the (meta?) ontology eternally the same throughout all historical
that contains both ontology (1) and conjunctures, but rather continuously con-
ontology (2) structed through action.
Post-foundationalists argue that
Literature Review: Post- the nothing can be properly incorporat-
Foundational Political ed into a political theory by placing the
nothing in an interplay with the ground
Thought
itself because the ground is founded upon
Post-foundational political thought of- nothing.32 The nothing and the ground are
fers three key tools for helping us think constantly in play with each other, chasing
through an ontological theory invested each other away and back again. Because
in thinking through Blackness and anti- there is no absolute ground as in meta-
blackness:29 (1) demonstrating how the physics, post-Heideggerians argue that
29 Post-foundational political thought is not meant to describe beyond all foundation similar to an-
ti-foundationalism, but also to denote a movement away from strong foundationalism.The anti-foun-
dationalist position is mostly self-explanatory; literally, there are no ontological ground whatsoever that
can explain how things are. Conversely, strong foundationalists believe in an absolute ground, which can
account for everything, and that itself requires no additional ground. Examples include God, Reason, and
dialectical idealism/materialism.
30 The social means society and is at the ontic level.
31 See Warren (2010, pg 14).
32 This recognition of the nothing is relevant because metaphysics, as discussed earlier, strives to objecti-
fy everything, and the nothing always escapes objectification, and thus threatens the episteme of meta-
physics with collapse by exposing its limitations. In this way, metaphysics hates the nothing, so to speak,
and as Warren argues, projects it onto Blackness in order to control and neutralize it (Ontological Terror
5).
34
there is in fact nothing upon which the say created through politics. But what is poli-
ground of society is founded because that tics from a post-Heideggerian perspective?
would become the absolute ground, and (3) Politics is understood as the social
again we are back at metaphysics. There- actions that either sediment or unsettle the
fore, if we take seriously the idea that an ontological order,35 which is to mean, that
absolute ground is a metaphysical illusion, which functions to stabilize or destabilize
then there can be no deeper level that fully part of the current hegemonic distribu-
grounds the previous ground; put another tion. The hegemonic order in this case is
way, the essential metaphysical quest is to meant to delineate the link from ontics to
desperately disprove that the social is not the ontological; “Grounds emerge from
in reality founded, in the end, upon literally hegemonic paradigm shifts,”36 which is to
nothing.33 Therefore, the post-foundation- mean grounds “emerge from … political
alist embraces this which terrifies so many struggle.”37 In the register of ontics, hege-
metaphysical theorists, which is that there monic distribution refers to the “terrain of
is no fundamental logic or foundation for sedimented practices.”38 When this paper
the social. speaks to sedimentation, it is referring
(2) However, as aforementioned, to the condition of routinized repetition,
unlike anti-foundationalists, who argue where there can be more or less sedimen-
that there is no foundation whatsoever, tation of a given practice, and the more
post-foundationalists argue that there sedimented it is, the less it is questioned, or
is no absolute, final ground, but there are even able to be questioned, and vice versa;
contingent, temporary grounds con- “sedimentation emerges from repetition.”39
structed. This is the essence of why they Post-foundational political thought creates
are identified as post-foundationalists; an important link for political ontology
according to them, there is a foundation, by labeling the link from ontics to the
but it is founded about an abyss, and so it ontological, via intense sedimentation as
is necessarily contingent, and importantly, the grounding or instantiating of the so-
this contingent ground can never assume cial world.40 Grounding is the level of the
a total, absolute, or final ground status.34 ontological, and “politics should be seen
So, grounds are real, which is self-evident as an attempt at instantiating the [onto-
to those of us who seek to understand the logical].”41 Politics is nothing other than
colonial nature of our present world, but “ontic struggles” that prevent the closure
these grounds are contingent, which is to of the social, which is to mean prevent an
33 See Warren (2010, pg 15).
35 These thinkers believed that there is a usefulness in creating a distinction for clarity purposes between
the term “politics” and the term “the political,” which follows the distinction of the term “ontics” and
the term “the ontological.” Oliver Marchart helps elucidate this position by labelling this separation the
political difference, a deliberate homage to Heidegger’s “ontological difference” (Post-Foundational Political
Thought 4).
35
“
Politics is understood as the social actions that
either sediment or unsettle the ontological order,
which is to mean, that which functions to stabilize
or destabilize part of the current hegemonic
distribution.
ultimate ground;42 these ontic struggles tion must be ontically mediated via action
”
(politics) attempt to produce one reality and agency.”46 Ontics is what determines
which by definition excludes other possi- the ontological.47
ble realities, which is what is meant by at- To put it succinctly, so long as the
tempts at grounding. Therefore, our social field of ontics (the social) cannot be closed
world is in a constant cycle of grounding (which is to say all conflict/change ends),
and de-grounding, then grounding and so too can the ontological not be closed.
de-grounding again,43 and “politics” is the We can never make claims that the order
name of the concept that describes the ac- we live under, at the ontological level or at
tions that produce this cycle of grounding. ontics, cannot be closed because politics is
While the ontological institutes what creates the ontological, and politics is
ontics, post-foundationalist thought re- always present.
centers that ontics (politics) produces the on- In this section, we covered the three
tological. Beyond some interesting exercise tools we might gain from post-foundation-
of post-Heideggerian thought, I go over al political thought for theorizing political
this first and foremost to give us the tools ontology, namely: (1) how the nothing can
to analyze political ontological thought be thought through, (2) the contingent na-
that borrows from these same thinkers. ture of the ontological, and (3) an explana-
The above overview allows us to answer tion of how ontics produces the ontological
the question: But what creates ontology? I ground, through its conception of politics.
believe Marchart’s work, for all its failings, In this next section, we will go over
creates an essential intervention. The play the philosophy of Enrique Dussel and dis-
of difference does not make the ontologi- cover what tools we might glean from his
cal subordinate to ontics, and so too does work.
it not make ontics subordinate to the onto-
logical: They create each other,44 so yes, the Literature Review: Enrique
ontological institutes ontics, but ontics is Dussel
what creates the ontological.45 As Marchart The philosophy of Enrique Dussel gives
puts it, “every form of ontological institu- us two additional insights into political
44 Through an eternal interplay of difference.
45 See Marchart (2018, pg 145), Maldenado-Torres (2008, 221); See also, Maldenado-Torres (2007).
47 See Warren (2010, pg 56).
36
ontology:48 (1) the concept of the totalizing ground can never be reached.49 Marchart
system (or totality), and (2) the concept of writes, “The social is laden with conflict
the trans-ontological. on the ontic plane, because society cannot
A quick note: Dussel’s work is probe concluded into a totality.”50 Dussel and
foundly marked by an anticolonial posture, post-foundationalists agree; the social can
which is an improvement on post-founda- never be closed into a totality, can never
tionalist thought, but a major weakness is reach a final ground. I want to spell out this
his refusal to thoroughly engage with race implication a bit clearer.
and gender, and when he does, he tends To say that the totalizing system nev-
to collapse all non-white races in a similar er closes, that there is never a final ground,
structural position of subjection. As I laid means (a) that the dominant order does
out in the beginning, this paper is operat- not control all possible actions/possibili-
ing with the assumption that the structural ties/futures, and (b) there exists something
position of Blackness under colonialism outside this control. We can speak of the
is uniquely subjected, and so Dussel’s col- internal lives of the oppressed as not totally
lapse is inappropriate. I would argue that being controlled by nor ultimately reduc-
this point of view of Dussel does affect his ible to the colonial situation. This can be
work, but we can still easily translate his seen through the revolutionary struggle,
work to our current assumption, and when the intramural, and the social life (even if)
Dussel claims the domination of non-white within the social death of blackness and
(or more often in his words, dominated) Black people.51
people, for the purposes of this paper I will (2) The analytic of the trans-ontolog-
read this as Black people. ical describes how there exists something
(1) The concept of a totalizing system, beyond the dominant ontological order. Dussel
or totality, refers to the dominant ontolog- introduces the transontological by defin-
ical order that attempts to institute coming it in relation to the dominant order,
plete control but ultimately never succeeds. writing, “the transontological level, that is,
Dussel’s totalizing system links well with beyond the dominating totality.”52 Since the
the post-foundational notion of the im- totality of the dominant ontological system
possibility of a final ground, so that the to- is fundamentally exclusionary of some
talizing system never ultimately can close. people and their politics, there are people
The totality (which is just a shorthand for outside, though not totally,53 this totality.54
totalizing system), attempts to annihilate The two fundamental interventions I then
opposition, but the colonial world never take from Dussel, is that (a) there exists
completes its impulse toward complete material (ontic) content beyond the dom-
closure, which is just another way of say- inant ontology, and (b) these people have
ing what we discussed earlier, that the final an ontological being that escapes the direc-
48 Philosopher Enrique Dussel is extensively influenced by Heidegger’s work and is without a doubt with-
in the post-metaphysical tradition (Ethics of Liberation 376-377, 593).
49 See Mills (2018, pg 22).
51 See Mills (2018, pg 37).
52 See Dussel (2013, pg 337).
53 See Dussel (2003, pg 47).
54 See Dussel (2013, pg 558).
37
tive of the totality.55 According to the dom- cal (or the spiritual).”59 Dussel often refers
inant system, the colonized are other, and to the transontological as the metaphysical
“as other than the system, … one is beyond (breaking with Heidegger and Warren),
Being. Inasmuch as Being is and non-Being which makes Dussel’s work appear to
is not, the other is not.”56 Dussel’s elabora- follow Warren’s praise of the language
tion of the relation of non-being and the of metaphysics to escape ontology: “It is
system of dominant ontology makes clear precisely this mysticism that provides our
that the statuses of Being and non-Being fugitive escape from the confines of ontol-
are politically constructed and imposed ogy. … Thus, mysticism is not inimical to
upon existents.57 freedom; it is the only aspect of existence
Dussel’s analytic of the transonto- that provides hope.”60 Dussel’s philosophy
logical argues that not only is there social gives us the emphasis on the Black ontic
life, but this very sociality constitutes the and ontological experience that (1) exceeds
Being of blackness, which is not reducible the totalizing system, which we find in the
to the imposition of antiblackness by the (2) transontological level, outside of the
colonial order. As Dussel explains, he uses dominant ontology.
the prefix trans- to get across there is a Warren’s praise leads us to our next
passing beyond the ontology of the dom- thinker, Fred Moten.
inant system (ontology (1)), and since the
dominant order is de facto hegemonic, this Literature Review: Fred
ontology invisibilizes other ontological Moten
systems. Nevertheless, in reality, the place One final addendum to create a somewhat
that the transontological attempts to go to, accessible ontological language is the bril-
which is produced by the oppressed, is it- liant work of Fred Moten.61 Moten gives
self ontological in a genuine way, by which us two tools that overlap with what we
I mean not an illusion of the dominant already have discussed: (1) the concept of
system.58 This I believe already gives us paraontology as that which describes the
powerful tools in working with Warren, level of Being for Blackness,62 and (2) the
who reflects about Moten’s mysticism: elaboration of how even under conditions
“What Black mysticism offers is a lexical of “social death,” there is still Black social
imagination that aims to take us outside of life. As Moten puts it, “blackness needs to
political ontology and into the metaphysi-
55 See Dussel (2013, pg 339, 558).

56 See Dussel (2003, pg 51).
57 What I find brilliant about Dussel’s analysis is that he correctly identifies that the ‘ontology’ of the
dominant system is not the only field of ontological existence, and beyond the ontology of the dominant
system there is a different ontology produced by the oppressed. “The ‘liberation project’ is ontological.
However, since it unfolds beyond (in exteriority) the current system... I frequently refer to it as transonto-
logical” (Ethics of Liberation 628).
58 See Dussel (2013, pg 628).
59 See Warren (2017, pg 220).
60 See Warren (2017, pg 222).
61 This brings us closer to our aim since Moten has had an active and ongoing discussion with afropessi-
mists, and as Calvin Warren notes, Moten is himself a “neo-Heideggerian” (Black Mysticism 221).
62 First introduced by Nahum Chandler in Chandler, 2013, Moten modifies his version.
38
“To use the language of Moten, this ontology is fugitive
because it escapes and cannot be contained by the dominant
ontology, no matter the desire of the dominant ontology to
capture and destroy it; Blackness ‘is a theft of being.’”
be understood as operating at the nexus of create a totality, but as we discussed before,

the social and the ontological.”63 Hopefully, this is impossible; and Moten becomes
this is what this paper is doing. our third figure profoundly influenced by
(1) Moten deploys the concept of par- Heidegger to come to the same conclu-
aontology to signify the ontological regis- sion: the dominant ontology is not total.
ter of Blackness (ontology (2)),64 where the And, we can add another conclusion that
dominant ontology (ontology (1)) excludes Moten and Dussel share: If there is life
Blackness from ontology. Dominant on- that exceeds the ontology of the dominant
tology places blackness as abjection, but system, this too produces its own ontology.
blackness is not reducible to this abjection, To use the language of Moten, this ontolo-
and therefore ontology in this sense is not gy is fugitive because it escapes and cannot
up to the task of Black thinking, which is be contained by the dominant ontology, no
to say thinking about blackness. When matter the desire of the dominant ontolo-
I say “ontology in this sense,” I am talking gy to capture and destroy it; Blackness “is a
about ontology (1). I believe Moten says theft of being.”66 This fugitive ontology is
it well: “What is inadequate to blackness the ontology that exists in a non-reducible
are already given ontologies. The lived way beyond the dominant ontology, which
experience of blackness is, among other is to say the ontology (2) that exists beyond
things, a constant demand for an ontolo- ontology (1). Moten (and Chandler) gives
gy of disorder, an ontology of dehiscence, ontology (2) the name of paraontology.67
a paraontology whose comportment will I argue that Moten’s paraontology
have been (toward) the ontic or existential and Dussel’s transontology can be produc-
field of things and events.”65 I take Moten tively understood as one and the same, as
to link “already given ontologies” as equal expressing what I have before (in the pov-
to ontology (1), which is to say, dominant erty of language68) labelled ontology (2).
ontology. To reiterate, in a post-Heideggerian vein,
Moten’s analysis of paraontology pro- one can only speak “ontology” when there
vides a consensus with post-foundational- is actually something in the empirical realm,
ist political thought and Dussel’s work, in i.e., some ontics to speak of.
that ontology (1) is not the only ontological And as Sexton writes, of course there
system. The colonial world always seeks to is Black social life, but the point is that this
63 See Moten (2018b, pg 150).
64 We should take care to remember “the paraontological distinction between blackness and black people”
(The Universal Machine 242)
65 See Moten (2018b, pg 150).
66 See Hart (2016, pg 24).
67 “Moten carries Heidegger’s … ontic/Ontological into the distinction between blacks … and blackness”
(Black Mysticism 225). The paraontology level is on something like an ontological level.
68 What Warren might label “grammatical paucity” (Black Mysticism 220).
39
social life is lived in social death.69 But now is what Dussel calls the transontological,
moving beyond this misunderstanding, I Moten the paraontological, and I earlier
think a critical question that can be posed called ontology (2). According to Moten,
is: Is all Black social life reducible to this Black social life “causes us to recognize the
position of social death? paraontological as the ontological’s (im)
(2) Moten responds to this by clarify- proper name.”73 This follows Dussel’s claim
ing that what is called social death is only that the transontological is ontological.74
a death for a part of the Black social life.70 Moten makes very explicit that it is this
His intervention is helpful because it helps Black social life that exceeds the imposition
clarify a distinction that sometimes our of domination by whiteness that creates
language can obscure, that the social death paraontology.75
spoken of, in being a political death, is not Moten gives us the (1) paraontolog-
the totality of what we can call Black social ical, which is in many ways the same as
life (or Black sociality).71 the transontological, and (2) an elabora-
The needed intervention that I be- tion of Black social life non-reducible to
lieve Moten’s work demonstrates is that conditions of social death, which can pro-
this political death does not kill the totality ductively understood as expressing similar
of what we can call the social (ontic), or ideas as the lack of closure of the social for
something like it. As Moten expertly puts post-foundationalists and the totalizing
it, “Stolen life [Black life] is not equivalent system of Dussel.
to social death or absolute dereliction.”72
One life is killed, and another begins, and Conclusion
this life is not reducible to the ongoing This paper argues that the language of po-
death (and violence) being imposed on it. litical ontology that is important to many
Since we can now say that all Black so- Black theorists can be productively opened
cial life (or something like it) is not reduc- up by a dialogue between the work of
ible to ontic powers of the colonial system, Oliver Marchart, Enrique Dussel, and Fred
we can so too understand the Blackness is Moten. Each author’s unique work offers
not reducible or wholly captured by the overlapping and complementary insights
ontological system of colonialism, which that help reveal the plane of political on-
69 See Sexton (2016b, pg 15).

70 I would note, from my own perspective, Moten, in (correctly) tracing this genealogy to Arendt, per-
haps becomes Arendtian himself in some of his analysis, creating a strict separation of the political and
social. I do not want to create confusion, so to be clear the post-foundational thought that I elaborated
above is at odds with Arendt’s understanding of the political because it argues that which is commonly
described as political, which is often what Arendt means (e.g., public debate), is itself part of our social
(ontic) world. Moten himself notices this and problematizes it (Moten, 2018b, pgs 101, 107); however,
when Moten talks of political death instead of social death, I want to put a caveat that I am unsure is
explicit in Moten, that this political death is in itself social. (To clarify, I do not claim to correct Moten, I
believe we agree completely in the end, but I wanted to make a clarification of translation between his
works and how this paper unfolds.)
71 See Moten (2018b, pg 194).
72 See Moten (2018b, pg 151).
73 See Moten (2018a, pg 35).
74 See Duseel (2013, pg 628).
75 See Moten (2017, pg 312).
40
tology. First, post-foundationalist thought as that which describes the level of Being
demonstrates how the “nothing” can be for Blackness, and the elaboration of how
thought through, elaborates that at the even under conditions of “social death,”
ontological level all grounds are politically there is still Black social life.
produced, and gives an account of how These insights allow a deeper en-
grounding unfolds, through its conception gagement with the political ontology laid
of politics. Secondly, the philosophy of out by Calvin Warren and afropessimists
Enrique Dussel gives us the concept of the such as Wilderson and Sexton. This is just
totalizing system, and the concept of the an introductory effort that hopes to enable
trans-ontological. Finally, Moten gives us fellow scholars to engage with their im-
two tools of the concept of paraontology portant work in richer ways. ■
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and Ontological Disobedience.” E. of Liberation: An Introduction. Palgrave 229.
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41
INTERVIEW WITH
By Joni Rosenberg
Art History Professor W hen the COVID-19

pandemic first sent college
Jesús Escobar shares students home in March 2020,
no one knew exactly how daily
his COVID-19 life would change. Art History
Professor Jesús Escobar was
pandemic experience guest lecturing at Johns Hopkins
as an educator University in Baltimore when
its campus, along with others all
and researcher of across the country, was shut down.
At the time, Escobar was
architecture and involved in three different
urbanism in the Spanish research projects at various stages
of completion. Although their
Habsburg Empire. timelines were once very clear, they
had to be altered to accommodate
the pandemic.
As a researcher of architecture
and urbanism, Escobar often
travels to cities of interest for on-
site visits and archival research.
However, the travel restrictions
first implemented in spring
2020 meant it was impossible for
Escobar to travel internationally
that summer.
The largest impact was on a
project Escobar started in 2018.
42
JESÚS ESCOBAR
Because it uses biographical information The inability to travel has led Escobar
to help explain transatlantic architectural to “discover all these amazing online
patronage in the Spanish Empire, the tools that really saved a lot of scholars
project requires extensive archival research. during the pandemic.” Online libraries
“[During the] summer of 2020, I like the Biblioteca Nacional de España
obviously wasn’t going to get back to that have extensive digital libraries that
research project that required the archive,” include primary sources typically acquired
he said. through on-site research. He also credited
He instead focused on another ongoing pandemic-related adjustments with further
project about architecture in Madrid under encouraging him to “[figure] out ways to
the Habsburg Monarchy (1504–1700). make the research relevant to students.”
“The key tasks ahead were to get Escobar also discussed how the
some final revisions done with the copy pandemic has impacted his third project,
editor and then to … start dealing with all which covers nearly 300 years of architectural
the images for the book,” Escobar said. But history. Because it is meant to be easily
the image acquisition process was altered digestible for readers new to the history of
by the pandemic, too. the Spanish Habsburgs, less archival research
“The book has 143 images in it, and is necessary than for the other projects.
when you publish in art history, you have “I think it’s a kind of research agenda
to get permission for photography that’s that adjusts well to COVID,” he said.
not your own,” he explained. “It’s a really Although he still has to travel for the third
long process, and I thought, ‘I better start project, as well, he said those plans were
early because it’s going to take extra long.’” relatively easy to postpone based on the
But not all of these changes have project’s tentative schedule.
been negative. In fact, Escobar said he has Despite the obstacles posed by the
found new ways to approach research and COVID-19 pandemic, Escobar is excited to
teaching as a result of the pandemic. continue his research and teaching. ■
43
Department of Sociology
Faculty Adviser: Anthony Chen
Networking for Gender

Justice:
Women’s Arts Organizations as
Facilitators of Gender Equity in
the Arts Industry
by Jade Davis
Introduction ating billboards with phrases such as “Do

The later 20th century brought many dras- women have to be naked to get into the
tic changes in the United States in terms of Met. Museum?”2 Between this group of
occupational sex segregation. In the 1970s, women and other efforts throughout the
segregation began to decline substantially U.S., women had a voice in the art world,
across the board as more women found both becoming part of the mainstream
their way into traditionally male-domi- and creating their own alternative spaces
nated careers, which continued into the where they could be as politically and so-
1980s and 1990s.1 The art industry was cially vocal as they wished.
no exception, as women artists began to However, this progression has slowed
be nearly as visible and successful as their since the late 1990s, and the gender dispar-
male counterparts in art-rich cities such ity persists in the arts today, something
as New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. that contemporary sociologists, other
Artists such as Joan Mitchell, Judy Chica- researchers, and the media continue to ex-
go, and Louise Bourgeois hit their strides amine. Like in many other professions that
and became some of the most well-known have traditionally been male-dominated,
and well-paid artists of their time. At the the number of women artists has increased
same time, The Guerrilla Girls — masked slightly, but their pay, ease of success, and
artists who adopted names of deceased other individualized experiences are still
women artists — became some of the gendered and inequitable. Recent article
most outspoken critics of the treatment of headlines such as A New Study Shows That
female bodies in the largest museums, cre- Most Artists Make Very Little Money, With
1 Roos & Stevens, “Integrating Occupations: Changing Occupational Sex Segregation in the United States from 2000 to 2014”, 2018.
2 “Naked Through the Ages”.
44
Women Faring the Worst3 and The 4 Glass process, drawing mainly from the perspec-
Ceilings: How Women Artists Get Stiffed at tives of women artists who were active in
Every Stage of Their Careers4 suggest that the art scene during this period of change,
there is concern for all facets of equality for between the 1970s and the 1990s. My re-
women in the arts, from pay to opportuni- search questions are as follows:
ties for career advancement. Research from 1. What institutional structures or
government entities such as the National independent actors allowed women artists
Endowment for the Arts finds that women in Chicago to become more integrated into
visual artists earn on average 74 cents for the city’s mainstream art scene?
each dollar their male counterparts make, 2. When did these changes occur, and
and that the earnings ratio of these art- why did they occur when they did?
ists declines with age. Women artists age 3. How strongly were these changes
18–24 will earn 97 cents per dollar earned led by the women artists themselves?
by men artists of the same age, but those
55–64 will earn just 66 cents per dollar that Research Design
male artists of the same age will make.5 In order to understand the role of
Although this collection of data is women’s art organizations, including
valuable for determining where to focus cooperative galleries and more tradi-
on mitigating gender inequality in the arts, tional galleries, I utilized a combination
most research has focused on the current of archival research and semi-structured
state of inequitable environments, pay interviews. This combination was ideal
gaps, and lack of opportunities for women, to answer my research questions because
rather than on how women first became the archival material provided a more
more integrated into the art industry to objective background of what organiza-
begin with: what enabled women like tions existed, when, and how they were
Joan Mitchell and Judy Chicago to become integrated in the community.
well-known and successful. The addition
Archival Research
of a historical perspective may elucidate
I primarily used the sources I had to cre-
the steps toward gender parity in the arts
ate a list of women artists’ organizations
by identifying which aspects of an artist’s
which were active in Chicago during the
interactions with their surroundings and
time period of focus and to understand
institutions have historically contribut-
generally how they functioned. I also
ed to their successes or challenges. This
found lists of artists involved in the first
could then determine how women can
few years of each organization’s existence
navigate through their art communities
and any leadership or founders involved in
toward more equitable pay, gallery space,
the creation and running of the organiza-
attention in larger galleries and the media,
tions, which I used to create a list of artists
and increased monetary value of artworks
to contact for recruitment.
by collectors and in auctions. My thesis is
therefore a historical case study of Chica- Sample and Recruitment
go’s art scene and its gender integration I conducted 13 semi-structured interviews
3 Kinsella, “A New Study Shows that Most Artists Make Very Little Money, with Women Faring the Worst,” 2017.
4 Halperin, “The 4 Glass Ceilings: How Women Artists Get Stiffed at Every Stage of Their Careers,” 2017.
5 National Endowment for the Arts, “Artists and Other Cultural Workers: A Statistical Portrait,” 2019.
45
using a non-random convenience sample.6 I of income: They did not stop working as
spoke with 10 women artists who worked in an artist due to implicit or explicit gen-
Chicago from the 1970s through the 1990s der-based discrimination, and they were
and three women curators or art historians able to show in a gallery on a semi-regular
who worked among them or have con- basis (at least every five years).
ducted extensive archival research on their I defined “Chicago’s art scene” to
organizations. I used my archival sources to mean the network of commercial galleries
create a list of the first or founding members in Chicago and the surrounding suburbs,
of Artemisia Gallery, ARC Gallery, and as well as the related organizations for art-
Woman Made Gallery, as I had access to ists, including but not limited to women’s
lists of founding or primary members, as art organizations and others such as the
well as some lists of members or exhibi- Chicago Artists’ Coalition and the Chicago
tors for each year. I searched for current Public Art Group. Larger institutions, such
artist websites or other sources of contact as the Museum of Contemporary Art and
information for the living members and the Art Institute of Chicago, are important
interviewed all participants who respond- aspects of the city’s art scene as a whole, es-
ed to my email inquiries. pecially considering the role of the School
of the Art Institute of Chicago in train-
Interviews
ing many of Chicago’s most well-known
The interviews were 45 minutes to one
artists. However, I found through my re-
hour and 45 minutes in length and were
search that most of Chicago’s artists were
all done over the phone except for one
not represented in these museums during
artist, whom I met at her studio in Chi-
this time period, and that it was not neces-
cago. The interview guide contained four
sarily gendered, although the museums had
sections, each detailing different aspects
a separate issue in their representation of
of interview participants’ experiences
women artists as a whole. Therefore, I ex-
with Chicago’s art community, women
cluded these institutions from the analysis
artists, and women’s art groups (see
of women’s integration into the art scene
Appendix). Some questions were specific
to certain organizations, which I did not as they are not relevant to a vast majority
of the women involved in the women’s art
move forward with if the participant
organizations studied.
stated that they were not familiar with
I listened to the 13 interview audio
the organization. Probes were used to ask
clips and transcribed relevant informa-
for clarification or examples.
tion from the respondents, keeping in
Data Analysis mind possible ways that women artists
In order to analyze my data, I first identi- could have been impacted by these orga-
fied and operationalized the dependent nizations. If my hypothesis was support-
variable, or “navigating the city’s art scene.” ed, and if women’s art organizations did
I determined “navigating” to mean that a indeed play a significant role, I expected
woman artist was able to create artwork respondents to discuss themes mentioned
regularly, whether it was their full-time in previous literature. At the same time, I
career or they had another career or source kept in mind a set of alternative hypoth-
6 Participant data are not consolidated and comments are not attributed to individual participants or given pseudonyms in order to
preserve confidentiality, due to the small size of the community.
46
eses that could also explain what allowed Institute of Chicago. It was also known in
women artists in Chicago to become more the national art scene for a group of artists
involved in the community, unrelated to known as the Chicago Imagists, as well
the existence of women’s art organizations. as the “Hairy Who,” many of whom were
I used research on other industries and in- graduates of the art school. Although sev-
stances of women breaking into formerly eral women were members of the Chicago
male-dominated groups, as well as re- Imagists, women artists in general were
search on other aspects of the art industry not a large part of the otherwise small art
(including Art Worlds by Howard Becker) scene of the time.
to inform these hypotheses. I transcribed Nearly all of the women who were
any information from the interviews that part of Artemisia and ARC Galleries stated
could either support or refute these oth- that one particular artist, a woman named
er hypotheses, in order to have a more Ellen Lanyon, was the catalyst of these
well-rounded idea of how women could groups. Lanyon had spent time in New
have navigated Chicago’s art scene outside York City and had encountered another
of these women-specific institutions. gallery, Artists in Residence (AIR) Gallery,
which inspired her. AIR was a cooperative
Empirical Analysis gallery, rather than a commercial gallery.
The current hypothesis posits that the Artists involved in the cooperative paid a
presence of women’s art organizations in membership fee to rent the gallery space
the 1970s through the 1990s in Chicago together and take turns holding exhibitions
had a significant positive effect on women in the gallery space. AIR was also the first
artists’ ability to navigate the art scene. gallery of this type in the U.S. that focused
The analysis of my interviews provides on women artists. Along with this gallery,
support for this hypothesis, suggesting Lanyon had worked among a feminist art
that the organizations provided internal critic and activist, Lucy Lippard, as well as
connections with other women artists and other feminist artists who were working in
external connections to curators, gallery New York City at the time.
owners, and other actors, both of which Upon returning to Chicago, Lanyon
were necessary components of success as a gathered a small group of recent gradu-
woman artist in the field. ates from the School of the Art Institute
and other working women artists. They
Historical Background
then began the initial recruitment process.
According to archival research, as well as
However, too many women artists were
narratives from Chicago’s scholars and cu-
interested in the cooperative gallery, and
rators, the city’s first women’s art galleries
not enough spaces were available for one
in the period of interest began in April
gallery, so some artists branched off and
1973, with the openings of Artemisia Gal-
created the second of the two galleries.
lery and ARC Gallery. These galleries were
Thus, Artemisia Gallery and ARC Gallery
some of the first women-focused art spaces
were opened in the same building and
of their kind in the country. The Chicago
within one week of one another in the
art scene was also well-known at this time,
spring of 1973. Approximately 20 artists in
from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s,
each organization shared the lease, taking
for its world-renowned School of the Art
turns operating the gallery space and hold-
47
ing a two- to three-person show monthly.
Although Artemisia and ARC were
“The organizations
the first women’s galleries in Chicago, they
were not the first women artists’ organi-
provided
zation. The National Women’s Caucus for
Art opened a chapter in Chicago one year
both internal
earlier, in 1972. Many artists were both and external
involved in cooperative or commercial
galleries and the Chicago Women’s Cau- connections that
cus for Art (CWCA). The organization
was comprised of both women artists and allowed women
others in the arts community, including art
historians, curators, professors, and others.
to create and
The CWCA held several exhibitions of its
artists in women artist gallery spaces.
show their work
Artemisia and ARC Galleries were
crucial institutions for many women art-
in a supportive
ists in Chicago in the 1970s and 1980s, environment.”
and their location on the north side of the
city attracted artists and others in part due They felt that the cooperative structure of
to their proximity to other galleries and Artemisia and ARC Galleries was limiting
museums at the time, including the initial and that the organizations did not provide
location of the Museum of Contempo- enough exhibitions for women artists who
rary Art, the N.A.M.E. Gallery, and the were not members of the collective. There-
Randolph Street Gallery. However, due fore, Woman Made Gallery was created as
to their location on the north side, an in- Chicago’s first commercial gallery that still
direct consequence was that the women focused on women artists. It was unique
that were drawn into these organizations to the other women’s arts organizations in
were predominantly white women. At its that it had a physical space, unlike CWCA
creation, Artemisia Gallery had no mem- and Sapphire and Crystals, but that it also
bers who were women of color; ARC allowed more women to become involved
Gallery had one. In part due to this lack without necessarily needing to be a mem-
of women-specific arts organizations that ber and regularly contributing to the gal-
would function as well for women of col- lery financially, completely planning their
or, the organization Sapphire and Crystals own shows, or otherwise being involved in
was created in 1987. Rather than a gallery the running of the organization.
space, it was a collective that served Black This overview of Chicago’s women’s
women artists who also exhibited in wom- organizations suggests that there was both
en artist gallery spaces. Several of these a need for a community of women artists
women were also part of the CWCA. and an interest in creating said commu-
In 1992, two women founded Wom- nity. However, it also raises the following
an Made Gallery under the premise that questions: How beneficial were each of
Chicago still did not provide the commu- these organizations to the women artists?
nity that the city’s women artists needed. What did they provide their members to
48
help navigate the scene and perhaps be- they were often being interrupted by men
come successful working artists? around them. As they wanted to make the
cooperative a space where everyone could
Findings and Interpretation
speak without fear of interruption or over-
My interviews with the women artists
shadowing, they designed their meetings
who were involved in women’s art orga-
and conversations so that everyone would
nizations suggest that in the beginning of
take turns speaking on the topic at hand.
the time period of interest, the early 1970s,
This artist also stated that after each ex-
most women artists in Chicago were
hibit, artists would meet and talk about the
unable to break into the city’s art scene.
work. She and other participants lamented
However, I find that these organizations
were significant in allowing women to that other art communities they had been
part of later in their careers did not have
more easily navigate the city’s art scene,
this opportunity to speak to one another
supporting my hypothesis. The organiza-
and called the cooperatives a “giving, en-
tions provided both internal and external
couraging” space with “heartfelt … conver-
connections that allowed women to create
sations” that kept artists “spiritually and
and show their work in a supportive en-
intellectually alive.”
vironment and led them to networking
These organizations often held their
opportunities to become more involved in
artists to a high standard, which drove
the mainstream art scene.
members to develop their work further
Organizations as Sources of Internal than they may have otherwise. One par-
Connections ticipant said, “we held a high standard for
Women’s art organizations from the exhibiting. The quality of your work, the
1970s to the 1990s provided a space presentation both had to be top-notch or
where artists could create connections [the organization’s founder] wasn’t going
with other women artists to build a to help sell it.” This space for critique and
community within and separate from the collaboration even affected some artists
mainstream art scene. One significant who passed through the cooperatives and
facet of these internal connections was were not initially accepted into the group.
that nearly all of the artists found that One participant mentioned an artist, now
the women’s art organizations provided internationally renowned, who had inter-
spaces for critiques or other dialogue viewed for one of the cooperatives when
that allowed women artists to develop it initially launched and had been turned
their body of work in a productive and down. She had said to the research par-
encouraging environment. The close ticipant, “I deserved to be turned down.
community of women artists allowed My work was really crappy. I threw it out
for discussion about each artist’s body of and started to do all different work and
work, as well as other discussions about then got in [later]. You were absolutely
the experience of being a woman artist right to turn me down.”
in Chicago. Several artists also stated that they
One artist discussed how Artemisia began doing more experimental work, as
used a “feminist approach to conversation,” they were inspired by how the women
inspired by women’s rights activists at the artists around them utilized themes and
time who were becoming more aware that materials that they had not thought about
49
before. They found that women’s galleries
provided a space to do work that would
“Being involved
not have been accepted in more traditional
galleries. Topics that were seen as specific
in a women’s art
to women, or not universal enough, were
welcomed in women’s art spaces:
organization ...
The more places there are for women provid[ed] a sense
to show, the more opportunities
they have to share their work … of community and
and talk about difficult topics, like
menstruation. Nobody wants to talk camaraderie for
about that. … You wouldn’t have a
chance at a commercial gallery because female artists.”
they wouldn’t be able to sell it.
the only one in the gallery. We had
The participants provided mixed per- hired someone to also sit in the gallery
spectives as to whether competition exist- … [who] told me the story. This artist
ed among the women in the organizations just told her that there were no visuals
or if the space was completely collaborative of my work which was totally untrue.
and helpful. Half of the participants had She showed [the curator] her own
no negative experiences with other wom- work instead. She’s a big deal artist in
en in terms of competing for resources, Chicago now.
grants, or other shows in the area. They The interviewee said that other than
described the atmosphere as “warm” and this member, everyone in the gallery was
“supportive,” even if many of the other “very helpful, willing to help out, and [gave
artists were mostly invested in their own her] a good feeling in the gallery.” This
work. The other half of the women stated was the only time a participant recounted
that since the art world itself was compet- a negative social experience within the
itive, all members in the cooperative had cooperative community. This anecdote
various reasons for membership. They said also suggests that several such opportuni-
that some members had ulterior motives ties existed for the women artists like the
for joining or only had regard for their curator visit, but some manipulated the
own work and well-being. One partici- situations to prioritize their own work and
pant stated that there were “slight issues career trajectory over those of others.
of dominance, and that some people were Two of the women I interviewed
‘stronger’ than others,” but that overall, from Artemisia and ARC galleries had
the members cheered each other on and not gone to graduate school; most of the
supported each other to get shows in other others had attended the School of the Art
commercial galleries. Institute. Both of these artists stated that
Only one participant gave an example the community was like graduate school
of a specific negative experience she had to them, and one other who had gone to
with another artist in the gallery. graduate school likened her experience in
One day, a big curator from New York the gallery to that of her graduate educa-
came to the gallery and asked to see my tion. One felt like “her work developed and
work. And [the offending artist] was everything else developed with it.” Anoth-
50
“Women’s art was were important in showing at a com-
mercial gallery later, a goal shared by
most often seen as most artists.
Several interviewees stated that
separate and lesser they were able to get commercial gallery
representation as a direct result of either
by male artists, exhibiting in a women’s gallery space or
knowing someone who visited the orga-
curators, dealers, nization. Some took these opportunities
for connection into their own hands. One
and the art scene participant said, “from Artemisia, we had a
overall.” woman showing at another gallery. I said
to myself, ‘If they’re interested in her work,
surely they’ll be interested in my work.’
er stated that her “work kept changing and
I contacted [the gallery owner] in New
evolving from being in the cooperative.
York, and I got into her gallery.”
[She was] interacting with other people’s
All of the artists involved in Artemis-
work, exchanging ideas.” She also stated
ia and ARC Galleries said that the location
that when it was an artist’s turn to be part
of the galleries was significant in allowing
of a two-person show in the gallery, this
the largest possible audience to attend their
became an especially valuable opportunity
shows. Both galleries, before they moved
to work with another artist and think about
to other locations, were initially in the
their ideas and how their bodies of work
same building as one another, along with
could relate. They would “bounce back and
several other relatively well-known galler-
forth, project [themselves]. ... There was a
ies at the time. In addition, they were on
lot of collaboration.”
the same block as the Museum of Contem-
Organizations as Sources of External porary Art’s initial location. The artists in
Connections these cooperatives coordinated their exhi-
Not only was the experience of being bitions to open on Friday nights, similar
involved in a women’s art organization to several other large and well-respected
helpful in providing a sense of community galleries in the area such as the Museum of
and camaraderie for female artists, but it Contemporary Art and N.A.M.E. Gallery,
also provided opportunities to connect so that the audiences from other galleries
with outside actors and create relation- and museums would spill over into their
ships needed to get to the “next level” of own exhibition openings. The smaller art
success in becoming an artist. All of the community in Chicago at this time only
artists stated that the organizations they served to aid this closeness, as one could
were involved in were not meant to be visit nearly all of Chicago’s most prom-
their only source of networking, or in inent galleries in one night. One artist
the case of the cooperatives and galleries, stated that a gallery owner saw her work
gallery representation. However, they and offered her a show at their gallery as a
understood that the connections they direct result of one of these nights. Anoth-
could potentially make with curators, er participant said that the president of the
gallery owners, and others in power Museum of Contemporary Art had visited
51
the gallery during her exhibition opening Another participant described the wom-
and was interested enough in her work to en’s organization spaces as “opening up the
commission a portrait of his family from doors to show what [women’s] work was
her that evening. like ... it was like a breath of fresh air.” Gal-
In addition, the organizations pro- lery spaces that focused on women artists,
vided programming that invited visiting especially the cooperative spaces which
artists into the spaces, provided outreach guaranteed their members an exhibition,
into the community, and allowed some allowed women to show their work with-
connections with other galleries. One of out feeling pressure to make it “fit” into
the cooperatives hired a director after their the gallery and be similar to the art of male
first building move to help coordinate ex- artists at the time.
hibitions and seek opportunities for artists, Other Findings
including assistance with grants and exhi- One significant finding that only some
bitions at commercial galleries. The other of the women interviewed directly men-
cooperative began a resource center earlier tioned — but was clear in the structure
in its time in Chicago and had also used of the organizations and the feminist
this opportunity to provide its artists with movements of the decades — was that race
connections to other artists in the area. played an important role in the success
The organizations invited successful art- and the makeup of the women artists and
ists, mainly from New York City, to show galleries at the time. Only one of the inter-
in their gallery spaces or hold artist talks. view participants was a woman of color,
Most of the participants stated that they did and she stated that she did not have any
not remember their organizations inter- negative experiences with women’s orga-
acting much with other women’s organi- nizations due to her racial identity. How-
zations. However, they would occasionally ever, most of the women’s organizations at
have shows at non-women-specific galler- the time were made up of predominantly
ies, art centers, and other organizations in white women and to some extent were
the Chicagoland area, allowing the artists created to benefit mainly white women.
to expand their potential audience further. As previously stated, the first two cooper-
Finally, the organizations with physi- atives, Artemisia Gallery and ARC Gallery,
cal gallery spaces provided an area to show were mostly white at their creation, with
artwork that did not otherwise exist for Artemisia gallery having no members who
most women, creating a space for others in were women of color and ARC Gallery
the scene to see their work and invite them having one. A member of one of these
to show in their own galleries. One woman galleries stated that, “It was a very white
stated that for most women artists: group. … The school [of the Art Institute]
Their work [didn’t] fit into the gallery. at the time was very white.”
… At the time, getting into a gallery in It is important to consider the possi-
Chicago was difficult. You had to be
bility that these numbers were merely re-
recognized, the work would have
flective of the number of women of color
to be sellable, or in some way the
gallery would have wanted to risk who were working as artists in the 1970s
investing in promoting your career. through the 1990s. However, several well-
It’s a very difficult path. known working artists of the time were
52
women of color, mainly Black women. what were described as “universal ideas.”
One artist discussed how there were sev- Women’s art, conversely, was described as
eral successful Black women artists she being more specific to feminist or feminine
admired: “I think Black women in the ’70s themes, ideologies, or perspectives, which
were hot stuff. They were being shown in was often brought up as a possible reason
the ’80s as well. … They were being rec- that women’s work wasn’t being shown as
ognized, maybe more so than Black male often. Women’s art was also described as
artists.” Black women artists and others using “fabric, paper, ethereal materials” and
may have found other avenues for success being “softer, more emotional, using mate-
that were not the predominantly white rials that used to be attributed to craft but
women’s organizations, or they may have were being used in an extremely unusual
been disenfranchised with the women’s way.” Artists also described more “fem-
movements of the time, which had histori- inine” work as shaking up the status quo
cally been created by and for wealthy white and critiquing the idea that only certain
women. Organizations for women of col- materials should be used in a certain way,
or, such as Sapphire and Crystals, founded and that this was one of the positive results
in 1987, were created to help fill this gap; of the feminist movement as a whole, for
according to a current member, founder women’s work and the art world overall.
Marva Jolly “had expressed concerns about Several participants stated that women art-
the lack of opportunity for African Ameri- ists were very much aware of this divide:
can female artists to exhibit. … Rather than These weren’t women artists who
wait around for someone to discover them, were chasing any kind of trend. …
[she wanted to] begin to create shows and They weren’t interested in any way
opportunities.” However, it is still not clear in fitting in, but just describing what
how exactly Chicago’s women of color was in their heart and soul. … Of course
artists navigated their communities be- they knew that, but they weren’t going
fore and during this period. The current to chase a different aesthetic.
research mainly focuses on white women It is not clear whether this gendered
artists and therefore does not fully and ac- difference in aesthetic was a cause of
curately depict the experiences of women women’s exclusion from the art scene, or
of color in Chicago who were attempting whether it was a consequence of it. Nor is
to navigate the art scene at the same time. it clear whether this difference was truly as
Another theme discussed by several widespread as it seemed, or if the “softer,
women artists was the idea of the “male more emotional” art was also a gender
aesthetic” versus the “female aesthetic” essentialist perspective supported by both
of visual art. One woman artist said that men and women artists. In any case, wom-
there was a “very specific female aesthetic en artists knew that their work was not
that was so gorgeous but not respected at respected. Nevertheless, they did not let
the time,” and that women’s art was most their knowledge of the dominant trends in
often seen as separate and lesser by male the art scene or the judgment of the male
artists, curators, dealers, and the art scene art lens impact their art production.
overall. Men’s work was described as “ag- A final trend seen among the inter-
gressive” and “minimalist,” using heavier viewees was that nearly all of the women
materials and angular edges as well as artists saw the difficulties that women
53
“ ‘These weren’t women artists who were chasing
any kind of trend. … They weren’t interested in
any way in fitting in, but just describing what was
in their heart and soul.’
artists experienced as not only due to their in organizations, who often self-defined as
”
gender, but also as a result of other factors. feminists, were “angry at what was going
Several mentioned that being a successful on” in the art scene, which fueled their
artist in Chicago was a matter of having drive. However, some of these participants
a strong personality or “grit,” traits they also acknowledged that the right personal-
believed women artists in particular may ity and perseverance were not enough, and
have had a harder time with. Other partic- that they knew many women artists who
ipants lamented the difficulty of being an worked hard but were still not successful,
artist in Chicago in general and stated that as other factors were at play.
it was seen across the board as lesser or sec- One of these factors, which was
ondary to the art and artists in New York shared by nearly all interviewees, was the
City. Finally, many artists stated that a ma- difficulty of being a Chicago artist in gen-
jor factor in the success of women artists eral. Most artists described the art scene
depended on their financial status nearly as at the time as being very small and insu-
much as their gender and that the disparity lar. Most attention given to Chicago’s art
in wealth among artists led to infighting scene in this period, the early 1970s and
among women artists themselves. This the decade before, was directed toward
trend parallels that of the women lawyers the Art Institute of Chicago and its school,
studied by Pringle et al., in that successful as well as the Chicago Imagists and the
artists acknowledged the difficulty of the Hairy Who. However, participants also
field but said that learning how to “play the cited these groups as being an inspiration
game” and developing traits such as am- for women artists, as there were “several”
bition and time management would often women, even “half” of the group, involved.
suffice in overcoming structural barriers.7 This is especially interesting, as the Hairy
Many participants cited individual Who, made up of six artists, included
personality, interest, and ability of women two women; the Chicago Imagists, with
artists — both their own and others — as 13 total members at their creation, only
defining factors in their success. One artist included three women. While the true
said of herself, “I find the whole art of get- number of women involved in these or-
ting into galleries difficult. … I don’t have ganizations was small, less than half of the
the right personality to persist in the quest total members, they were exceptionalized
for the gallery. You have to have a certain or sensationalized by these women artists
persona, a perseverance. … You have to who would have otherwise had very few
invest the time and energy to get into a gal- women in the field to look up to, especially
lery.” Others said that many of the women in Chicago’s otherwise barren art scene.
7 Pringle et al., “Women’s Career Progression in Law Firms: Views from the Top, Views from Below,” 2017.
54
Chicago’s art world was most often families who were supporting them. It
compared to New York City, the city with was a real hard one for me to swallow.
the most well-known art scene. Many art- Most of them were in New York, with
ists, including the women interviewed, saw pretty well-to-do families.”
Chicago as a stepping stone to New York, A pattern with these wealthy wom-
which was the “dream” city to get a gallery en that caused rifts in the art scene was
or show and where the best and most suc- that many of them gained their wealth
cessful artists ended up. One participant from marrying well-off, professional
said, “unless you were from New York, men. One participant said:
really knew New York, and had a lot of The women that I know that really
family and money to really support you, it have careers. … They were all married
was almost impossible.” This combination to very successful husbands who were
of needing financial resources and being making a lot of money; [the women]
in New York City to be a successful artist didn’t have jobs. They spent 100% of
was often stated as an indisputable, if not their time doing their art. … They were
unfortunate, fact. The same artist said lat- able to spend a lot of time in the studio,
and that makes all the difference.
er, “somebody said to me, you gotta go and
buy drinks for these curators. At the time According to the women artists who had
they were $8 drinks. In 1979, these were families and were able to be supported
really expensive drinks.” This was one of by their husbands, this perspective was
the many examples given that heavily harmful and degrading. Some of the
suggested that financial ability was tied to women’s organizations and other galleries
success for women, a problem that was still often looked down upon women with
occurring after the creation of women’s art wealthier families as being lesser than the
organizations but was especially prevalent women who lived in the city and were
before their arrival in Chicago. not married. This view extended, as well,
One artist stressed the importance to those who lived in the suburbs, stayed
of having both the “right personality” home and took care of their children, or
and wealth. She discussed a friend, now did not hold a career outside of their art.
internationally renowned, who was the One artist recounted her experience of
hardest working artist the interviewee going to a meeting of members of her
had ever known. She “had the money to organization after it closed and discussing
spend the time to do it,” and was able the success of the former members:
to take commissions that lost her many One of the women said, “I don’t
thousands of dollars in transportation and think we should count her, after
material costs during the process of be- all, she was rich and married.” So,
coming more well-known. Another par- I stepped in and said, “I think we
ticipant relayed a difficult experience of should applaud her, because she was
looking over a 20th anniversary catalogue rich. Despite being a socialite, she
managed to figure out a way to have
for her organization to see which artists
a career and do important work.”
were still alive and working. Everyone
who was a living, successful artist was, Some artists suggested that this divide was
she said, “married, with professional hus- due in part to a greater societal bias against
bands, or they came from very wealthy women who attempted to work and also
55
have families and children. Chicago’s women’s arts organizations
Women’s arts organizations wel- overall had a lasting impact on the com-
comed artists of all types and backgrounds: munity. Although Artemisia closed in
both those who lived and worked in the city 2003 for financial reasons, the other four
and those whose homes were the suburbs, organizations researched are currently
and with a variety of financial resources in operation. ARC Gallery and Woman
available. However, the above suggests a Made Gallery are still exhibiting, and ARC
split in the relationships between artists Gallery remains a cooperatively structured
considered wealthy and artists who were gallery. Chicago’s Women’s Caucus for
not, undermining the suggestion that the Art and Sapphire and Crystals are also
connections among artists were an essen- active to some extent. Several shows and
tial part of what made these organizations exhibitions, including a recent exhibition
successful. More research is needed to fully at the Glass Curtain Gallery in 2018,8 have
understand the dynamics between those been created to archive and remember the
with more resources and those with less, as legacy of these women artists and orga-
the connections between artists may have nizations, and art historians have become
indeed been mainly with others of a sim- dedicated to better understanding these
ilar economic background. Nevertheless, groups and their effect on Chicago’s art
my interviews suggest that women’s arts history. Future work could be done to con-
organizations may have provided a means tinue focusing on both the organizations
for partial democratization of Chicago’s and Chicago’s female artists and art history
art scene for women artists. Other than more broadly. In addition, the importance
Sapphire and Crystals, most of these spaces of financial resources to women artists, as
predominantly served white women artists suggested by my data, should be explored
and therefore were not necessarily provid- further. Other possible directions include
ing full, equitable community among all investigating how women artists’ percep-
of Chicago’s female artists. However, the tions of gender and gender exploration
spaces allowed for the gap to be bridged to affected their experiences and the work
allow women artists with fewer financial they produced, looking further into other
resources to be in the same space, doing non-women-specific arts organizations in
the same type of work as wealthy women. the city, or researching what specifically
pushed women artists out of careers in the
Future Directions
arts. ■
8 Glass Curtain Gallery’s show, Where the Future Came From, was open from November 2018 through February 2019. It show-
cased projects and programming related to women’s organizations such as Woman Made Gallery and Sapphire and Crystals as well
as others including Chicago Women’s Graphics Collective, SisterSerpents, and Mujeres Mutantes.
56
Appendix
Interview Guide
What was the participant’s role in the Chicago art scene?
• How long did you live in Chicago? How did you begin working there?
• Why did you stay there? [If no longer in Chicago:] why did you leave?
• [If an artist:] what media, themes, ideas were prevalent in your work at the time?
• [If a curator, museum director, gallery owner:] what was your role in your organization?
• How would you describe Chicago’s art scene?
• What did you like or dislike about it? What would you have liked to see happen that wasn’t happening?
What were the participant’s views on being a woman artist in Chicago?

• Do you think women artists faced obstacles in their work?
• [If so:] what obstacles? Were these barriers removed? How?
• Since you’ve been aware of Chicago’s art history, when do you think it was the most difficult time to be a woman artist in Chicago?
• [If a specific time period or other suggestion of difficulty for women artists:] did you see a change in this difficulty? Was there
a time in which it became easier for women artists to be successful?
• Why do you think this occurred?
• Do you think this was specific to Chicago, or was this the case everywhere?
• [If specific:] what makes Chicago unique?
• [If everywhere:] how did this reflect the dynamics across the nation?
• Do you think Chicago changed at the same rate as other cities?
• How easy do you think it was to be a successful artist as a woman in Chicago when you were living/working there?
• Do you know of any examples of women artists trying to break into the scene but failing? Why do you think this happened?
• Do you think there was a time while you were there in which the ability to become a successful woman artist changed
in difficulty?
• How would you describe a successful artist?
• What do you think separated a successful woman artist from an unsuccessful one?
How did the participant interact with women’s arts organizations?

• Were you part of any women’s art groups or organizations? Describe the group and your role in it. [If not part of a group, describe
groups they worked with in their careers, or were familiar with.]
• Why was this group founded? Why was it focused on women?
• [If they are a founder:] did you personally experience the problems that led to this group needing to be founded?
• Were there other efforts, to your knowledge, to create groups that failed immediately?
• What types of people were members of, or attracted to, this group? Who did you surround yourself with?
• How much did you lean on each other for support? Were members often collaborating and networking, or did many keep
to themselves?
• Was it competitive? Were many women fighting for the same resources or shows?
• How would you describe the initial success of the organization?
• Did you feel like Chicago’s art scene was ready for its presence? Was it easy to get others involved, or did you have a difficult
time getting interest?
• How did you advertise? How were artists able to become involved?
• How did the organization sustain itself financially? Did it have major benefactors, or was it financed by the members?
• Did this group interact with other organizations (from other smaller, independent galleries to large museums)?
• How was your organization viewed among these other organizations? How was it viewed in the larger artist community?
• Was there any mentorship (official or unofficial) in your organization?
• How much did men, artists or otherwise, interact with the group?
• How much do you feel like your organization/other organizations around you affected how women artists in Chicago engaged
with the community?
• What aspects of these organizations were most influential?
• Were you part of any other art groups that weren’t focused on women?
• What were some similarities and differences between these groups?
• Were any of the people you knew in these groups also in women-focused groups?
• How did these groups interact with women-focused groups?
• Were there other groups you weren’t part of that were focused on supporting artist women?
• [If in a group:] how were these groups similar and different to your own?
• How did these groups operate?
• Did you or others around you feel these groups were successful in supporting artist women?
• How would you describe the difference between a cooperative and a regular gallery?
• Do you think your organization would’ve been different (received differently, operated differently, would you have enjoyed it
as much, etc.) if it was a gallery rather than a cooperative?
• If familiar with ARC and Artemisia:
• ARC and Artemisia were created around the same time. How were they similar and different?
57
• Did they fulfill the same needs or niches?
• Were you or others you knew active at both?
• How was the communication between the two organizations? Did they ever collaborate?
• ARC and Artemisia are often described as “alternative spaces.” What do you think this meant in Chicago’s art community
at the time?
• If familiar with Artemisia:
• What were your reactions to the news that Artemisia was closing?
• Why do you believe it shut down?
• If familiar with ARC:
• What do you think ARC did to be able to stay open in Chicago that other groups (Artemisia) weren’t able to do?
• If familiar with Chicago Women’s Caucus for Art:
• How did the Caucus function as an organization? How was it different to other organizations with permanent spaces?
• If familiar with Sapphire and Crystals:
• How would you compare Sapphire and Crystals to other women’s arts organizations working at the time?
• How do you feel about the group’s media coverage?
• If familiar with Woman Made:
• Woman Made was created several years after Artemisia and ARC. Was it created as an additional organization that filled the
same niche but for a different audience? Or was it created to fulfill a need that these groups weren’t covering?
• What were other similarities and differences between Women Made and other groups?
How did the participant feel about other aspects of being a woman artist?
• How did you notice the media talking about women artists and their work?
• What role did the media play in how well [your work and] the work of artists around you was known?
• [If in an organization:] did having alternative spaces like [organization] provide name recognition in the media that audiences
could connect to that wouldn’t exist otherwise?
• How many of the women artists you knew were able to show at galleries and museums?
• Were any of them showing as a result of being at [organization]?
• Why do you think this is?
• Did this change over time?
• Were there any other people, organizations, or institutions that you believe had an influence on the ability of women artists to be
successful in Chicago?
• Were these more influential, in your experience, to your success/the success of women artists around you than women
artists’ groups?
• If [your organization] did not exist, how do you think you would have navigated Chicago’s art community?
• Do you think it would have been possible at the time?
58
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Bailey, I. (2017). The (In)Visibility ment Journal, 1-23. 10.1002/smj.2049 Integrating Occupations: Changing
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59
FEATURE
Impact of COVID-19 on Medical

Social Sciences Research
By Vibhusha Kolli
As a quality of life researcher, Patricia

Moreno has been able to conduct
therapy and intervention-based work
throughout the pandemic.
60
FEATURE
M edical Social Sciences Professor Pa-

tricia Moreno was shocked that her
research continued to stay active with data
tact. … The absence of that has made things
a little bit more logistically challenging.”
There was also an impact on new
collection and enrollment recruitment af- projects as Moreno modified the projects to
ter the first few weeks of the COVID-19 account for the pandemic along with mak-
pandemic in the U.S. ing the studies accessible in the pandemic.
At the beginning of the pandemic, “The weight affecting other research-
only minor adjustments were needed to ers who do research like mine…depended
accommodate the new circumstances. on whether or not they had that adaptabili-
Couples Cope, one of Moreno’s studies ty to make all of their research activities on-
that looks at couples who are undergo- line: from how you recruit patients, to how
ing diagnostic assessment for metastatic you enroll them, to how they participate.”
breast cancer, remained relatively the same Although there are obstacles in qual-
through the use of online consent forms, ity of life research based on the topic and
intervention, follow-up assessments, and approach of the work, Moreno said the
introductory letters. pandemic has also brought a new perspec-
There were, however, changes in tive to the research.
interactions with patients, as pandemic “The pandemic has induced a lot of
restrictions limited in-person interaction. chronic structural stressors into people’s
“You have the opportunity to have lives. [This has shifted] focus on their im-
some face-to-face interaction while you mediate day-to-day lives and the things that
answer questions, explain the study, and they’re doing in order to be as well as possible
what it will entail,” Moreno explained. and take care of their families,” she said.
“There is an aspect that I think is lost. Some studies have stayed relatively
However, with telephone contact, I think consistent during the pandemic; however,
that you’re able to recover some of that there have been impacts on patient com-
ability to build rapport and connect with munication, the lab environment, the abil-
the patients.” ity to begin new studies, and the context
These restrictions have also affected in which the work is taking place. Moreno
how Moreno and fellow researchers inter- is grateful to be able to continue her re-
act with their team and lab members. search and looks forward to furthering her
“The day-to-day structure that we research projects and contextualizing her
used to move forward our projects in our findings in the pandemic. ■
research involved a lot of face-to-face con-
61
Department of Anthropology
Faculty Adviser: Mark Hauser
Swimming Upstream:
Decreasing Salmon Populations
in the Columbia River Basin
through Infrastructure and Its
Impacts on Indigenous Welfare
by Simone Laszuk
Abstract
Since 1854, when tribal treaties began to allocate sustainable quan-
tities of fish to different actors along the Columbia River, there has
been tension between governing state bodies and those populations
reliant on fish for sustenance and livelihood. This project critically
analyzes the systemic obstruction of the Yakama tribe, settled along
the Columbia River, to salmon and their gradual and ongoing sub-
jugation in the context of environmental conflict. Additionally, I use
(GIS) mapping to demonstrate water culverts’ effect on drastically
lower salmon spawning, resulting in significant stress on the fish, a
staple resource for the Yakama. This paper connects urbanization and
infrastructure in Washington state with an environmental crisis that
disproportionately impacts native groups in the area. This research
will bring to light how governing bodies do not prioritize Indigenous
welfare, especially in the context of environmental justice.
62
Introduction Salmon
In a popular Seattle neighborhood, hidden For salmon spawning to occur, the fish
behind a garden and a forest preserve, is must annually return to their natal streams
the Ballard Lock Salmon Ladder. Tourists for repopulation. Any obstruction to that
walk across gated bridges to watch the stream (e.g., culverts) will hinder repro-
lock let in water, see the sea level rise, duction. I argue in this work that salmon
and then cross the channel to witness the represent an important pool resource that
main event. On the far side, past the twists is strained in the same way many other
and turns of bridges and down a flight of resources are.
stairs, is an aquarium-like cement room Yakama Tribe
with small glass windows caked in algae. The Yakama tribe is settled along the Co-
Onlookers peer into the openings to watch lumbia River. Members describe their na-
salmon, the show’s unassuming protago- tion’s history, culture, and lives as “inter-
nists, struggle against the man-made tide. twined with the salmon and the Columbia
I observed the scene for a whole ten min- [River].”1 In addition to the integral role of
utes to see one salmon get through, after salmon to their identity, the fish are fun-
which the whole room erupted in cheers. damental to their economic livelihood and
On my way out, I stopped at the gift shop well-being. Thus, public health researchers
and picked out a hat with a colorful salmon posit a direct link between the impact of
on it. I put it on and walked out, passing polluted waters on the salmon population
under a screen counting the number of and on the wellbeing of members of the
salmons that passed through the lock Yakama.2 And while the Yakama are by no
that day. I thought to myself, The salmon means the only tribe with significant ties
pictured on my hat will soon be nothing more to salmon populations, in this paper, they
than a relic of a fish that no longer lives here. are a case study showing the importance of
This paper examines the historical maintaining fish populations in the Pacific
and contemporary dynamics of interac- Northwest (PNW).
tions among Indigenous groups (the Ya-
kama tribe), infrastructure (in the form Culverts
of culverts), and the legal and governance Culverts divert water under newly con-
techniques that mediate between them. I structed roads, and thus represent the
will argue that the body of legal work sur- expansion of urban and infrastructure
rounding these tribes does not adequately projects3 — in this case, at the expense of
protect their way of life and that the pri- pre-existing ecological and Indigenous
oritization of infrastructure is harmful to ways of life. Culverts have become a key
the salmon populations. I will show this impediment to salmon spawning, with
through an analysis of the literature and direct consequences to the Yakama, im-
court cases, as well as the use of GIS map- pacting their standard of living. Impeding
ping to show that salmon physically are the access of salmon to spawning grounds
barred from the areas in which the tribe is the most direct cause of the decrease in
fishes. this fish population.4
1 Yakama Nation Fisheries, n.d.
2 Chrisman et al. 1999
3 Davis and Davis 2010.
4 McClure et al. 2008
63
This paper builds upon both the local
legal-historical context, as well as envi-
“Governing bodies
ronmental subjects literature, to elucidate
the connection among culverts, impact-
do not prioritize
ed salmon populations, and the Yakama indigenous welfare,
welfare
tribe’s well-being. On a broader scale, I
am critically examining the link between especially in
the urbanization of states and the wellbe-
ing of interdependent human and animal
the context of
populations. environmental justice.”
Analysis Common pool resources, or resourc-
Salmon Populations es to which there is relatively open access,
Salmon spend one to seven years in the are successful only if all parties are mindful
ocean after birth. They must overcome of their use of and interactions with the re-
rising ocean temperatures, evade pred- source. Infrastructure projects, by contrast,
ators, and avoid commercial fishers to are conducted by somewhat separate logic.
achieve their end goal of returning to their They claim to connect populations or to
natal streams. These salmon must return forward economic expansion; they con-
to their natal streams to reproduce and tain their own purpose, such as in the case
repopulate, or they will not spawn. One of dams, to generate power. And while
barrier they encounter as they travel out salmon may not factor into their planning,
of and back into the streams is dams. On these projects can affect both the fish and,
average, 7–15% of salmon will die trying by extension, all other actors making use of
to pass each dam they encounter.5 The in- this common pool resource.
troduction of dams in the Columbia River In an effort to decrease the number
Basin has rendered half of the area virtually of fish trapped or impeded by barriers,
inaccessible to salmon populations.6 From the United States Fish and Wildlife Ser-
a population of 10–16 million in the early vice (USFWS) introduced the National
1900s, dams have drastically lowered the Fish Passage Program in 1999.9 Since its
number of salmon in the area.7 But while inception, the program has successfully
the impact of dams on fish populations has removed or bypassed over 3,000 barriers
been widely surveyed, culverts remain a to fish movement and reopened almost
controversial character in the ongoing fish 60,000 miles of upstream habitat for fish.
wars. In the next section of this paper, I The barriers listed include dams, water
will focus my analysis on culverts specif- diverters, and culverts.10 The program’s
ically. But first, a final point on the role mandate points to the connection between
of salmon as a common pool resource is the well-being of fish populations and na-
necessary.8 tive groups, explaining that
5 “Columbia River Salmon, Pacific Northwest | Chinook Salmon” n.d.

6 CRITFC, Columbia River Basin Salmon Extirpation Map.
7 “Columbia River Salmon, Pacific Northwest | Chinook Salmon” n.d.
8 Hardin n.d.
9 “Fish Passage Reconnects Habitats for Healthier Fish and Wildlife!” n.d.
10 “Types of Fish Passage Barriers” n.d.
64
removal [of barriers to fish movement] stream corridor habitat. Even properly
also improves lives of tribal cultures designed and installed culverts
like those along the Klamath River can become fish passage barriers if
Basin in California and Oregon. There channel incision occurs downstream
have been recent cases where they and migrates upstream to an existing
have not been allowed to fish their culvert, since culverts are static
ancestral waters because of decreases structures in dynamic systems.13
in fish populations. The salmon that The image of a static structure effec-
migrate in the Klamath are the source
tively highlights the problem with these
of the tribe’s food, income, and are at
the heart of their ceremonies.11
culverts: They do not change to meet the
needs of the populations existing in the
The question remains, however, if area before they did. Figures 1-5 show a
and how culverts lower salmon popula- variety of types of culverts, all large and
tions in the Columbia River Basin and in intimidating barriers. Even at a glance, it is
turn endanger tribal welfare, as salmon evident that some culverts are undeniably
are a key component to the survival of the inhibitory to fish passage.
Yakama tribe. At an institutional level, culverts have
Culverts been identified by the USFWS, the Wash-
Many governing agencies, including the ington Department of Fish and Wildlife
USFWS and Snohomish County, have (WDFW), and various counties across the
marked culverts as a priority barrier for state of Washington as a priority concern
removal to increase fish passage.12 Cur- in addressing salmon issues. The WDFW
rent environmentalist efforts to remove created a formula to assess the different cul-
culverts are met, however, with equal verts in an area and determine a hierarchy
strength by pro-urbanization actors. of priority of which culverts to replace.14
Specifically, city governments looking to Snohomish county in Washington creat-
increase the number of their inhabitants ed a similar but more simplistic formula,
and extend the reach of road networks called the Priority Index (P.I.), to aid in
see culverts as an important means to that altering culverts on a smaller scale. At first,
end. As a geomorphologist at the USFWS the solution to the environmental harm
explains, however, the threat of culverts to culverts cause is to get rid of them entirely.
fish is explicit: However, a relatively new area of explo-
Streams are linear systems that move ration looks at fixing existing culverts and
mass … along the channel primarily setting a standard for future culverts. The
in upstream/downstream directions WDFW published a report on fish passage
and through the floodplain in all performance as well as an updated manual
directions. … Improperly installed (inculcated in 1998) in 2019. It begins with
culverts compromise or eliminate fish the definition of key terms, including “fish
and other aquatic species passage and use potential,”15 which evaluates how ac-
can alter the quantity or quality of cessible a culvert (specific to this manual)
11 “Why Fish Passage Is Important. And Why We Should Care.” n.d.
12 “Fish Passage Culvert Program | Snohomish County, WA - Official Website” n.d.
13 Castro 2003
14 “Fish Passage Culvert Program | Snohomish County, WA - Official Website” n.d.
15 Barrett, 2019 “Consistent with earlier editions of the Manual the term ‘fish use potential’ refers to the potential for adult salmo-
nid use at an instream feature; a determination of ‘potential fish habitat’ is not intended to be an indicator of usability for all fish
65
“If culverts are directly reducing salmon populations, and
tribes rely on salmon for sustenance and identity, how can
economics and infrastructure imperatives outweigh the
well-being of humans?”
is for salmon through the measurement of additional 600.

various barrier properties.16 This manual Figure 6 shows the common salm-
provides instructions to identify, assess, on passages towards the Yakama Nation,
and prioritize human-made instream fea- where fishing takes place. Evidently, there
tures that preclude or impede upstream are a multitude of culverts impeding the
fish passage. travel. If each culvert hinders a majority, if
The federal government claims they not all, of the salmon that attempt to pass
gave these parameters to Washington through, there must be almost no salmon
state, while Washington v. United States left for the Yakama to harvest.
(1975) holds that Washington violated This all begs the question — which
these guidelines. The WDFW aims to re- culverts are demoted to the second round
move or fix culverts impeding the fish po- of importance? Why are all culverts not
tential, but the cost of doing so is high. The mandated to be fixed, if more than the
decision of the 9th Circuit Court of Ap- required ones are serving as a barrier to
peals in Washington v. United States dictates fish passage? Additionally, this tension
that Washington state should replace cul- between legal rulings and local represen-
verts that are identified as bad for salmon, tatives represents the main conflict this
potentially as dictated by the WDFW for- paper settles on — if culverts are directly
mula mentioned previously, which would reducing salmon populations, and tribes
cost upwards of $3 billion. In 2019, state rely on salmon for sustenance and identi-
Rep. Andrew Barkis questioned how this ty, how can economics and infrastructure
cost could be justified, especially when cul- imperatives outweigh the well-being of
vert replacement and fixing must be done humans?
at a large-scale.17 The Washington State Yakama
Department of Transportation (WSDOT) The Yakama Nation have a Yakama Na-
has an estimated 2,000 culverts across the tion Fisheries (YNF) group dedicated “to
state, 992 of which are covered under the honor, protect, and restore the treaty trust
court injunction. The court case stipulates natural resources of the Yakama Nation.”18
that at least 400 culverts — those with a The group’s website breaks down these
fish habitat of a quarter mile or more — be three tenets to connect the importance of
fixed by 2030. If the state does not fulfil the these fish populations to the tribe:
requirement, they will be liable to fix an
The fish in Nch’í Wána (the Columbia
species and life stages.”
16 The successful upstream passage of adult salmonids continues to be the basis for barrier determinations. The criteria for velocity,
depth, and water surface drop remain the same. A feature that is determined to be ‘passable’ using the methods described in the
2019 Manual, and earlier editions, is considered to be passable to adult salmonids and should not be construed to be passable for all
salmonid species and life stages.
17 “Cost of Removal of Barriers to Salmon Hits $3.8 Billion | Tacoma News Tribune” 2019
18 “About Yakama Nation Fisheries | Status and Trends Reporting” n.d.
66
“By prioritizing to the West is littered with significant bar-
riers (Figures 1-5). Because this location
urbanization and is a dam itself, any change in the number
of salmon crossing this area must be due
infrastructure, to another barrier factor. That is, if the
number of fish crossing the dam changes
Washington state but the dam does not, there is another
is actively harming factor contributing to the access change.
The only other barrier noted in this area —
the tribes that and in other areas of decline — is culverts.
Of the salmon the YNF monitors, the
Washington v. harvestable fish will be defined as the sum
of all adult chinook salmon, total steelhead
United States salmon, sockeye salmon, and coho salmon
mandates it protect.” over the course of a year. In 2000, the area
saw 26,532 harvestable fish pass through
River) and its tributaries are of the dam. In 2019, the exact same area saw
paramount importance to our people, only 6,371 harvestable fish (Figures 7, 9).
our diet, and our health. … Through This is a 76% decrease in salmon across
our treaty-reserved rights, we advocate just 19 years. Conversely, the population
for resources that cannot speak for of the tribe has stayed relatively stable.
themselves, and provide outreach and The U.S Census Bureau counted 31,799
education activities that empower people living on the reservation in 2000
others to do the same.19 and 30,810 in 2014.20 This is a mere 3%
The YNF is staffed by over 200 people and decrease in population on the reservation.
combines scientific expertise with tradi- The more substantial decrease in fish pop-
tional ecological knowledge. The YNF ulation is harmful to the well-being of the
website focuses on four different dams Yakama Nation.
where the organization counts salmon The Yakama Nation’s identity is deep-
passing: Prosser (Figures 7-9), Roza Dam, ly intertwined with the salmon. The YNF
Lyle Falls, and Castile Falls. Their efforts website presents a vignette that illumi-
to illuminate impacted salmon populations nates the time-honored traditions upheld
through tracking changes in populations in the Yakama Tribe that are connected to
have not been as effective as possible, as salmon:
they are fighting an uphill battle. Even One of Yakama children’s earliest
with the YNF’s attempts to strengthen memories is sitting at the ceremonial
salmon populations, or at least keep them table and waiting for the water to be
steady, the populations have rapidly de- poured. Next, the salmon is placed on
clined over the past 10 years. Prosser Dam the table, followed by the deer, roots,
(Figure 10) is impacted directly by a few and berries. We complete the meal
significant culverts, and its feeder stream with water. We are taught this order
and that water is the lifeblood of our
19 “About Yakama Nation Fisheries | Status and Trends Reporting” n.d.

20 Center for New Media & Promotion (CNMP) n.d.
67
existence.21 Recalling the legal framework dis-
The Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish cussed above, since 1905, the Washington
Commission (CRITFC) is a collaboration state government has taken on the role
between four tribal groups in the Co- of carer for the tribes residing within the
lumbia River basin, the Umatilla Tribes, state. By creating this paradigm of gover-
the Warm Springs Tribes, the Nez Perce nance, Washington state has made it its
Tribe, and the Yakama Nation. The CRIT- requirement to ensure the survival of the
FC has four main goals: (1) “Put fish back Yakama tribe. It would be naïve to say that
in the rivers and protect watersheds where the standard set by the state, which renders
fish live,” (2) “Protect tribal treaty fishing Indigenous groups lesser, is disrespectful
rights,” (3) “Share salmon culture,” and (4) and essentially dehumanizes these people.
“Provide fisher services.”22 However, if Washington state created
The organization’s website offers this framework, it must be willing to exist
a comprehensive explanation of the ne- within it.
cessity for this commission, as well as an The WSDOT has published the
involved exploration of the importance information on culverts and is aware of
of the salmon in the cultures of these four their harm, and the YNF updates their fish
tribes: “The cultures, intertribal interac- counting portal multiple times per month
tions, fishing technologies, and very reli- and has records going back years. CRITFC,
gions of the Pacific Northwest tribes were the Yakama Nation website, and various
all impacted and influenced by salmon. … news outlets have consistently explained
Salmon play an integral part of tribal re- how salmon are integral to the success of
ligion, culture, and physical sustenance.”23 tribes. All the information is available to
The CRITFC goes on to explain that the Washington state government, which
salmon are a source of livelihood for many it could use to make the same conclusions
tribes and are important for their health, I am making here. By not prioritizing the
how annual salmon harvests act as a stage adjustment of culverts to render them
for passing traditional values to younger harmless to salmon, then, Washington
generations and how salmon returning to state is actively impeding the survival and
streams represents “the renewal and con- well-being of the Yakama tribe, which is
tinuation of human and all other life.”24 something it is legally required to avoid.
These tribes, the Yakama included, are ex-
plicitly bound to the salmon populations. Results
CRITFC explicitly connects the success The analysis and description of culverts,
and well-being of the tribes — culturally, as a concept, show that if the culverts are
economically, and environmentally — to not held to certain standards, fish will find
the fish population. The Yakama Nation it difficult to pass through these areas.
has built a foundation of identity upon the Furthermore, because salmon are natal
survival of salmon. It is not too ardent to stream-dependent for reproduction, their
claim that the survival of salmon means the accessibility to waterways impacts their
survival of the Yakama tribe. population size. The question remains
21 “Honoring the Salmon | Yakama Nation Fisheries” n.d.
22 “About CRITFC | Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission” n.d.
23 “Salmon Culture | Pacific Northwest Tribes, Columbia River Salmon” n.d.
24 “Salmon Culture | Pacific Northwest Tribes, Columbia River Salmon” n.d.
68
“ Indigenous communities and tribes have essential
insight into projects happening on and around
their land, and their voices must be included in
decision-making.
if culverts can be directly tied to Yakama to fish and understood the salmon’s con-
”
reservation declining salmon numbers. nection to Indigenous survival. On the
In Figure 6, the circled areas represent other side, the state has also ruled that it is
significant fishing areas for the Yakama responsible for making decisions for Indig-
Nation and also function as natal basins enous groups because the tribes cannot act
for the salmon populations. Therefore, in their own best interest, but the govern-
these are critical areas of examination. ment can and will. These two legal rulings
Seeing how many fish can access this area dictate that if the government understands
indicates not only the amount of fish able that fish are essential for survival, it would
to reproduce, but also the access of Yaka- protect tribal welfare by ensuring that
ma Nation to the fish there. The arrows salmon populations are at adequate levels.
are the pathways that salmon must take to This does not even need to be an active
reach these circled basins. As seen in the attempt to increase populations higher
Figure 6, the red and yellow dots represent than they were at the time of these cases;
culverts: Yellow dots represent culverts the government could passively ensure it is
that are partial barriers or ~66% passable,25 doing nothing to hurt salmon populations.
and red dots represent culverts that are However, that is not the case — by prior-
complete barriers26 that fish have to find itizing urbanization and infrastructure,
a different path to pass. There are at least Washington state is actively harming the
eight barriers to passage on the Northeast tribes that Washington v. United States man-
side and at least 10 on the Southwest side. dates it protect.
At each complete barrier, fish must either There are checklists for building cul-
turn around and swim back the way they verts accessible to salmon; but as this map
came or find a smaller waterway that shows, many were built before these check-
goes around the obstacle. At each partial lists were required. Culverts are created to
barrier, over 30% of the fish cannot get divert water to allow for infrastructure and
past and turn around the way they came. roads. This is the reason culverts were put
The streams that break off by culverts are in, and the implications for wildlife were a
usually too small for large populations of secondary thought. To rebuild a culvert up
salmon to pass through, so the number of to the standards set for population health,
fish that find their way around these com- state governments must choose to spend
plete barriers is deficient.27 money to fix something that is already
Washington state has historically serving its original purpose.
ruled to allow Indigenous groups access Conclusion and Further Implications
25 “2019 WSDOT Fish Passage Performance Report,” n.d.
26 “2019 WSDOT Fish Passage Performance Report,” n.d.
27 “FishPassageReport_Appendices.Pdf” n.d.
69
The example of Washington state and the sion over the wellbeing of its Indigenous
Yakama Nation is a disappointment. Be- peoples.
cause Yakama people were not consulted, From this work, the most important
or even considered, when urbanization takeaways are the comprehensive urban
was booming, the state’s decisions have planning analysis, legal historical assays,
had significant negative impacts on their and incorporation of Indigenous voices.
lives. By impeding salmon access to natal First of all, before planning major infra-
streams, and coincidentally Yakama fish- structure, there needs to be a more com-
ing areas, Washington has prioritized the prehensive understanding of potential
expansion of urban areas and infrastruc- impacts. That is a more common practice
ture over the wellbeing of people living in modern urban planning (and was not
within its borders. when these culverts in question were ini-
This comes down to a tension be- tially built). In terms of legal-historical ex-
tween urbanization and tribal welfare. ploration, this case study shows how easy
The structures that led to urbanization 100 it is for the Washington state government
years ago separated these two concepts; to overlook its past decisions in the appli-
however, these two do not have to be syn- cation of the law. There must be a better
onymous. The WSDOT has published ex- standard for translation of statute into its
tensive explanations since the early 2010s application. Finally, the potential of envi-
about how to make culverts and dams ronmental subjects comes through in the
safe for fish passage. However, in order to takeaways from this case study. If Indige-
make the current culverts fish-friendly, the nous voices are included in the stage of ur-
government would have to spend massive ban planning, these environmental injus-
amounts of money. These culverts are still tices could be avoided or at least lessened.
serving their initial purpose (to build roads Indigenous communities and tribes have
over waterways), but the government’s essential insight into projects happening
perceived need for change is not imminent. on and around their land, and their voices
This work is vital for understand- must be included in decision-making.
ing how to analyze infrastructure. Often, Not all future infrastructure demands
construction intention does not match need to be met with such devastation to
consequences: This thesis does not say that people or ecological populations. A deeper
Washington state maliciously built cul- analysis of potential impacts must be done
verts to hurt Indigenous tribes. However, in the future of all urban planning projects.
once the state was aware of the unintended Most importantly, and more specifically,
consequences of its urbanization, it was its money needs to be put into fixing the cul-
duty to pay to fix it. By choosing to turn verts in Washington state to ease the pres-
a blind eye to the problems it created, sures put on both salmon and the Yakama
Washington state prioritized urban expan- Nation. ■
70
T Figure 1. Photo 1 of T Figure 2. Photo 2 of
barrier 990189 near barrier 990189 near
Yakama reservation. Yakama reservation.
T Figure 3. Photo 1 of T Figure 4. Photo 2 of

barrier 990857 near barrier 990857 near
Yakama reservation. Yakama reservation.
T Figure 5. Photo 1 of T Figure 6. Map of salmon

barrier 991955 near pathways to Yakama
Yakama reservation. reserve.
W Figure 10. Prosser Dam in

relation to Columbia River,
Yakama Reservation, and
recognized culverts.
71
72
Adult Adult Adult Total Jack Jack Total
Facility Jack Fall Unmarked Marked Total Jack Bull
Date Spring Summer Fall Adult Spring Summer Jack Sockeye Coho Lamprey
Name Chinook Steelhead Steelhead Steelhead Coho Trout
Chinook Chinook Chinook Chinook Chinook Chinook Chinook
Prosser 12/12/2019 - - 1 1 - - - - 5 - 5 - - - - -
Prosser 12/13/2019 - - - - - - - - 5 - 5 - 2 - - -
Prosser 12/14/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/15/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/16/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/17/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/18/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/19/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/20/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/21/2019 - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 - - - - -
Prosser 12/22/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/23/2019 - - - - - - - - 5 - 5 - - - - -
Prosser 12/24/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/25/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/26/2019 - - - - - - - - 13 - 13 - - - - -
Prosser 12/27/2019 - - - - - - - - 13 - 13 - - - - -
Prosser 12/28/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/29/2019 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/30/2019 - - - - - - - - 3 - 3 - - - - -
Prosser 12/31/2019 - - - - - - - - 13 - 13 - 1 - - -
Totals 1391 209 661 2261 211 49 31 291 1483 11 1494 110 2506 52 7 -
*Counts for the most recent days may be partial counts.

S Figure 7. Chart 1A: Yakama Nation Fisheries 2019 salmon count at Prosser Dam; 6,371 harvestable fish [adult chinook + total steelhead + sockeye + coho].
Prosser 12/11/2010 - - - - - - - - 34 - 34 - - - - -
Prosser 12/12/2010 - - - - - - - - 33 1 34 - - - - -
Prosser 12/13/2010 - - - - - - - - 34 - 34 - - - - -
Prosser 12/14/2010 - - - - - - - - 59 - 59 - 3 - - -
Prosser 12/15/2010 - - - - - - - - 34 - 34 - 5 - - -
Prosser 12/16/2010 - - - - - - - - 28 - 28 - 1 - - -
Prosser 12/17/2010 - - - - - - - - 24 - 24 - - - - -
Prosser 12/18/2010 - - - - - - - - 10 - 10 - - - - -
Prosser 12/19/2010 - - - - - - - - 11 - 11 - 2 - - -
Prosser 12/20/2010 - - - - - - - - 13 - 13 - - - - -
Prosser 12/21/2010 - - - - - - - - 11 - 11 - - - - -
Prosser 12/22/2010 - - - - - - - - 13 - 13 - - - - -
Prosser 12/23/2010 - - - - - - - - 13 - 13 - - - - -
Prosser 12/24/2010 - - - - - - - - 10 - 10 - 1 - - -
Prosser 12/25/2010 - - - - - - - - 23 - 23 - 1 - - -
Prosser 12/26/2010 - - - - - - - - 29 - 29 - 1 - - -
Prosser 12/27/2010 - - - - - - - - 37 - 37 - - - - -
Prosser 12/28/2010 - - - - - - - - 44 - 44 - - - - -
Prosser 12/29/2010 - - - - - - - - 43 - 43 - - - - -
Prosser 12/30/2010 - - - - - - - - 34 - 34 - - - - -
Prosser 12/31/2010 - - - - - - - - 3 - 3 - - - - -
Totals 10845 - 2766 13611 1830 - 126 1956 6429 206 6635 11 4809 184 - -
S Figure 8. Chart 1B: Yakama Nation Fisheries 2010 salmon count at Prosser Dam; 25,066 harvestable fish.
73
74
Prosser 12/12/2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/13/2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 - - -
Prosser 12/14/2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/15/2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/16/2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/17/2000 - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 - - - - -
Prosser 12/18/2000 - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 - - - - -
Prosser 12/19/2000 - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 - - - - -
Prosser 12/20/2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/21/2000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Prosser 12/22/2000 - - - - - - - - 2 - 2 - - - - -
Prosser 12/23/2000 - - - - - - - - 2 - 2 - - - - -
Prosser 12/24/2000 - - - - - - - - 7 - 7 - - - - -
Prosser 12/25/2000 - - - - - - - - 7 - 7 - - - - -
Prosser 12/26/2000 - - - - - - - - 5 - 5 - - - - -
Prosser 12/27/2000 - - - - - - - - 14 - 14 - - - - -
Prosser 12/28/2000 - - - - - - - - 6 - 6 - - - - -
Prosser 12/29/2000 - - - - - - - - 6 - 6 - - - - -
Prosser 12/30/2000 - - - - - - - - 13 - 13 - - - - -
Prosser 12/31/2000 - - - - - - - - 27 - 27 - 1 - - -
Totals 17376 - 1879 19255 1566 - 450 2016 1783 42 1825 - 5452 259 - -
S Figure 9. Chart 1C: Yakama Nation Fisheries 2000 salmon count at Prosser Dam; 26,532 harvestable fish.
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75
Spotlight:
Dr. Murphy, Global Health Professional
involved in the COVID-19 process
by Kallista Zhuang
W aking up at 5:45 a.m., Dr. Robert L. Murphy starts his days early. In just an hour
and a half, he will hop on live television to answer coronavirus-related questions
from viewers of Chicago’s WGN-TV morning news.
Even after 236 consecutive days (as of February 6, 2021) of voluntarily participat-
ing in the new station’s coronavirus segment, Murphy never runs out of questions to
answer. This isn’t surprising, as Murphy has decades of experience in global health as a
researcher, doctor, professor, and institute director.
However, similar to many accomplished academics, Murphy did not know he would
end up here. In fact, after graduating high school, he first pursued aviation. With a family
of engineers and jet pilots, Murphy’s choice to study aviation was nothing out of the
ordinary. However, during the Vietnam War era, aviation opportunities were limited to
the military. Instead, Murphy opted to go back to school to pursue his interest in science;
this time, he would attend Boston University for a biology degree.
76
Unsure what to do with his biology degree, Murphy looked for future career paths
and was drawn to medicine. Due to a physician shortage from the Vietnam War and oth-
er factors, there was a push to expand medical school spots and condense medical school
curriculums. Thus, with only four weeks off per year, Murphy was able to graduate from
Loyola University Stritch School of Medicine in 1978 within three years.
Wanting to stay in Illinois, Murphy came to Northwestern University Feinberg
School of Medicine for an internal medicine residency. It was during an infectious dis-
ease elective rotation at the Veterans Affairs hospital when he realized the appeal of
studying infectious disease: Like detectives, infectious disease specialists work backwards
to determine the roots of diseases. The profession employs critical thinking and is similar
to solving a mystery, both of which appealed to Murphy.
Following this interest, Murphy began a three-year infectious disease fellowship
in 1981. Within his first week, the first case of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
(AIDS) was reported:
“I had read this little report MMWR, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
from [Centers for Disease Control]. It comes out every week. They had talked about
these 16 men. … A friend of mine had called me from the emergency room and said,
‘Hey! Maybe we have one of those cases here. This guy’s got a weird pneumonia and
purple things on him.’ And sure enough, he was our first case. …We weren’t swamped
with cases in that first year or two, but they grew exponentially.”
Murphy unintentionally became an AIDS doctor and
was treating a third of the AIDS patients in Illinois.
Not only did he become the biggest admittor of
AIDS patients at the Northwestern Me-
morial Hospital, but he also became
the biggest signer of death certif-
icates due to the incredibly high
“Just as quickly as
death rates associated with AIDS. he had become the
The number of patients that
Murphy could treat was over- biggest admittor
whelming and grew exponential-
ly. His physician role had physical for AIDS patients,
constraints and combatted the
epidemic indirectly, but Murphy Murphy admitted
wanted to take a more active role
in controlling the epidemic.
almost no patients
Thus, over the next ten years,
Murphy switched gears and shifted
in 1996.”
into HIV and clinical research, continu-
ously testing different anti-viral treatments and
diseases related to HIV. When he was caught in a bad
ski accident in 1994 and found himself no longer able to
physically look after patients, he shifted even deeper into research.
Released in 1995, the triple or combination therapy (also known as the triple cock-
77
“Not only is the virus dangerous,
but the handling of it has also cost
many lives.”
tail) was a drug therapy used to suppress HIV replication and dramatically slow AIDS
progression. Just as quickly as he had become the biggest admittor for AIDS patients,
Murphy admitted almost no patients in 1996.
After attending a conference where Nelson Mandela spoke of the need for increased
attention to the HIV crisis in Africa, Murphy became a visiting professor at the Harvard
T.H. Chan School of Public Health and started working in Africa. Through Harvard’s
School of Public Health, he and few others were able to receive the President’s Emer-
gency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) grant under former President George W. Bush’s
administration. To this day, the PEPFAR grant is the largest public health implementa-
tion plan.
Working in Nigeria, Mali, and South Africa, he eventually became the country
director for Nigeria and treated 175,000 people at 53 different sites. The position was
soon given to a Nigerian physician, and Murphy became a consultant for the country for
handling the AIDS epidemic.
Soon after, he became the administrative science director for Mali during the Ebola
epidemic, running testing in Northern Guinea, which had thousands of cases, alongside
Mali, which only had eight cases.
“I ha[d] never washed my hands with so much bleach before in my life,” he said.
Now, the next deadly infectious virus he is tackling is the SARS-CoV-2, which has
caused the COVID-19 pandemic. With its over use, the word “pandemic” has lost its sen-
sationalism and has been equated to a bleak reality. But for Murphy, the death rate and
intensity of this virus is nowhere near ordinary. This pandemic in particular has had the
most impact on his career as a global health professional. Not only is the virus dangerous,
but the handling of it has also cost many lives.
“The United States has the worst statistics. We have the worst metrics because
we’ve politicized the whole thing. It’s not supposed to be politicized; we’re all in this
together. There’s no place for politics with a pandemic and public health. Unfortunately,
that’s what happened,” Murphy explained.
Even with almost a dozen ongoing projects in Africa, Murphy still manages to make
strides within the COVID-19 research realm locally.
In Evanston, he is currently working with students on a viral dynamics study as
a part of the Rapid Acceleration of Diagnostics or “RADx,” a $500 million initiative
launched by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to increase COVID-19 testing. So far,
Murphy and his research group have tested dozens of devices and are currently letting
students use a “Point of Care” (usually done at a doctor’s office) device at home to test for
COVID-19. Within 15 minutes of using a nasal swab and buffer, students can find out
78
whether they test positive or negative for the virus. This rapid antigen test, BinaxNOW,
was used as a supplement and temporary replacement for COVID-19 testing at North-
western University during the shutdown of postal services from intense snowstorms and
subzero temperatures in February 2021.
As a leader and a part of the program planning committee in the Northwestern
COVID-19 Vaccine Communication and Evaluation Network (CoVAXCEN), Mur-
phy aims to create a space for important discussions surrounding the logistics of the
COVID-19 vaccine. With the live segment on WGN every morning, Murphy addresses
COVID-19 related questions from viewers and hopes to quell the misconceptions around
the vaccine.
40-50% of the general population are reluctant to get the vaccine, which is far less
than what is needed to possibly achieve herd immunity. Al-
though Murphy believes that there was mismanagement
with the COVID-19 pandemic, he also believes the
money put into the vaccine was useful and the
majority of people in the last phase — col-
lege students — will be able to be vac-
cinated by the summer. He proj- “40-50% of the
ects that a semblance of normality
may be reached by fall of 2021, but general population
that the disease will probably not
go away for a few years, as other
are reluctant to get
countries must control the dis-
ease, as well.
the vaccine, which is
With still so much to learn far less than what is
about the disease and how long
the antibodies generated by the needed to possibly
vaccine last, we may never entire-
ly eradicate COVID-19. Murphy achieve herd
also warns of the possibility of
another pandemic in the near future. immunity.”
Many of these natural disasters are un-
controllable, so our response to these events are
crucial for maintaining and improving the well-being
of the people. ■
79
Department of Psychology
Faculty Adviser: Dan McAdams
Stories of Regret in Late

Midlife and Their Relation
to Psychosocial Adaptation
by Joy Hsu
Abstract
Previous research indicates that regret is a painful experience for
people but often leads to enhanced self-meaning and personal
growth. In this study, we employ a narrative approach to explore
the architecture and coping methods of regret experiences in late
midlife adults. We relate variation in regret narratives told by 163
adults aged 55–57 to psychosocial adaptation, conceptualized in
terms of psychological well-being and Erik Erikson’s adult-devel-
opmental factors of generativity and ego-integrity. Two coders
analyzed interview transcripts of regret narratives for numerous
content categories, including type of regret, source of regret, de-
gree of resolution of the regret (coming to terms with it, making
peace with it, solving the problem), and hopefulness for the future.
The qualitative results illustrate the diversity and richness of regret
experiences in late midlife and flesh out the expression of 12 differ-
ent coping methods for dealing with negative life experiences. The
quantitative results provide empirical support for the hypothesis
that degree of regret resolution is positively associated with overall
psychosocial adaptation. Findings are discussed in terms of the role
of the bidirectional relationship between regret resolution and
psychosocial adaptation, as well as the role of regret experiences
more generally in life stories and in late midlife development.
80
“ Narratives of regret may provide insight into the
unique ways in which people make sense of difficult
events in their lives, with potential implications for
psychological development and adaptation.
Introduction the situation was out of their control,
”
While regret has been a topic of psycho- enabling them to avoid self-blame. When
logical study for over two decades, re- this happens, it becomes easier to resolve
searchers have rarely focused on the kinds the cognitive dissonance that the self was
of personal stories people tell about their responsible for the undesirable outcome.3
experiences of regret. Narratives of regret Researchers have also distinguished
may provide insight into the unique ways effects between omission regret and com-
in which people make sense of difficult mission regret. Omission regret involves
events in their lives, with potential im- feeling regret for not taking a particular
plications for psychological development action, while commission regret involves
and adaptation. Adopting a narrative ap- feeling regret for taking a particular ac-
proach,1 the current study examines how tion.4 While commission regret may be
a sample of late midlife adults — approx- more intense in the short term, omission
imately half of whom are White and half regret is often described as having long-
of whom are African American — narrate term negative consequence.5
experiences of regret. Research investigating the transfor-
mation of negative experiences of regret
Regret and Coping in this manner has been focused on under-
Regret is the aversive emotional and cog- standing how people construct, maintain,
nitive sense of loss due to an unfavorable suppress, or cope with their regrets. Emo-
outcome. According to Janet Landman, tion-focused coping relies on avoiding or
the six most common sources for regret suppressing the negative emotions associ-
concern education, career, romance, par- ated with regret or distracting oneself with
enting, the self, and leisure.2 Not surpris- positive emotions in order not to dwell
ingly, people tend to regret more strongly on the regret. Problem-focused coping in-
outcomes in which they assign blame to volves attempting to manage or solve the
themselves rather than outcomes in which problem caused by the regret and working
they place blame externally. When blame towards rectifying the unfavorable deci-
is external, people often feel as though sion or outcome.6
1 Adler, J. M., Dunlop, W. L., Fivush, R., Lilgendahl, J., Lodi-Smith, J., McAdams, D. P., McLean, K. C., Pasupathi, M., & Syed, M.
(2017). Research methods for studying narrative identity: A primer. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8, 519-527.
2 Landman, J. (1996). Social control of “negative” emotions: The case of regret. The emotions: Social, cultural, and biological dimensions,
89-116.
3 Ibid.
4 Dibonaventura, M. D., & Chapman, G. B. (2008). Do decision biases predict bad decisions? Omission bias, naturalness bias, and
influenza vaccination. Medical Decision Making, 28(4), 532-539.
5 Gilovich, T., & Medvec, V. H. (1995). The experience of regret: what, when, and why. Psychological review, 102(2), 379.
6 Folkman, Susan, Richard S. Lazarus, Rand J. Gruen, and Anita DeLongis (1986), “Appraisal, Coping, Health Status, and Psycho-
logical Symptoms,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50 (3), 571-79.
81
Life Stories
Researchers who have studied regret
“Among the most
have generally not focused on how people
narrate their regrets and how they in-
important features
corporate them into their life stories and
self-understanding. The current study,
of a person’s
therefore, adopts a narrative approach narrative identity
to examine the different kinds of stories
people tell about regrets in their lives and are the stories he or
the implications of those stories for psy-
chosocial adaptation.7,8 she tells about the
Many researchers who employ a nar-
rative approach draw conceptually upon
most difficult and
the idea of narrative identity. Narrative iden-
tity is a person’s internalized and evolving
challenging events
story for their life, incorporating a broad
reconstruction of the past and anticipation
in his or her life,
of the future.9 As a feature of personality including his or her
itself, narrative identity functions to pro-
vide people with a sense of purpose and regrets.”
unity in their lives, allowing them to form
a temporally coherent account of how they may instead face excessive guilt, panic, or
have come to be who they are. Among despair.10,11
the most important features of a person’s Psychosocial Adaptation
narrative identity are the stories they tell In considering psychosocial development
about the most difficult and challenging in the second half of life, Erikson’s model
events in their life, including their regrets. of the stages of psychosocial development
As people move through midlife and is especially instructive.12 In each stage of
later adulthood, they may reflect more development, Erikson argued, the person
heavily on their life narratives. It may be- faces a particular issue that is resolved in
come more common to contemplate past the dynamic between the needs of the self
experiences, including regrets, in attempts and the demands of society.13,14
to gain acceptance and understanding of The final two stages in Erikson’s
their lives. Done successfully, this process scheme apply to midlife and late adult-
of life review may bring a sense of satisfac- hood. In Generativity versus Stagnation,
tion, coherency, serenity, and fulfillment, adults are faced with the virtue of Care
but those who are not able to reconcile — caring for future generations by leaving
difficult pasts or resolve past conflicts their mark on society, or by creating a bet-
7 McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5, 100-122.
8 McAdams, D. P., & McLean, K. C. (2013). Narrative identity. Current directions in psychological science, 22(3), 233-238.
9 Ibid.
10 Butler, R. N. (1963). The life review: An interpretation of reminiscence in the aged. Psychiatry, 26(1), 65-76.
11 Butler, R. N. (1974). Successful aging and the role of the life review. Journal of the American geriatrics Society, 22(12), 529-535.
12 Erikson E. H . (1963). Childhood and society (2nd Ed.). New York, NY: Norton.
13 Ibid.
14 Erikson E. H . (1982). The life cycle completed. New York, NY: Norton.
82
ter world and passing down their knowl- by men versus women, and African Amer-
edge or resources to younger generations. ican participants versus white participants.
Successfully resolving this stage leads to a We do not aim to test hypotheses regarding
sense of accomplishment and fulfillment. mean group differences based on gender or
Failure to resolve this stage results in a race. However, we do aim to test hypoth-
sense of disconnect from society and the eses regarding how thematic variation in
feeling that the self does not matter and regret narratives is related to self-report-
will not be remembered.15 ed psychosocial adaptation in late midlife
The last stage of Erikson’s model is adults. Since unresolved regrets and fail-
known as Ego-Integrity versus Despair. ures may prevent one from accepting the
Older adults may contemplate the course course of one’s life and achieving high
of their lives and decide whether they have levels of well-being, we hypothesize that the
accomplished what they hoped to do and extent to which adults resolve or reconcile their
if they are satisfied with the lives they led. regret challenges will be positively associated
Erikson argued that successfully resolving with overall psychosocial adaptation, as opera-
this stage leads to the virtue and and sense tionalized through generativity, ego-integrity,
of acceptance and peace.16 It would be ex- and psychological well-being. We expect the
pected, therefore, that older people expe- hypothesized relationship to be especially
riencing high levels of ego-integrity might strong for the index of ego-integrity, which
have better resolved their regrets and be at captures the broad idea of life acceptance.
peace with their lives. Similarly, we hypothesize that late midlife
If the stage-related constructs of gen- adults scoring high on psychosocial adaptation,
erativity and ego-integrity mark psycho- will (1) attribute blame for regret experiences
social developmental indices, a third more to more external rather than internal sources,
generic index may be overall psychological and (2) maintain more hope for the future in
well-being.17 Psychological well-being the wake of their regrets.
refers broadly to the extent to which a
person feels happy and satisfied with his Method
or her life. It indeed makes intuitive sense
Sample
that people who experience higher levels
The data used for this study comes from
of overall well-being are more adapted to
the Foley Longitudinal Study of Adult-
their current life stage, regardless of what
hood (FLSA), which includes transcribed
that developmental stage is. In the present
life-story interviews from 163 adults
study, therefore, psychosocial adaptation is
(64.42% female, 35.58% male) aged 55–57
operationalized through self-report mea-
in 2009–2010. Participants were recruited
sures of generativity, ego-integrity, and
by a social-science research firm in the
psychological well-being.
greater Chicago-Illinois area targeting
An important goal of this study is to
white and African American adults. For
provide descriptive information regarding
the collected sample, 55.21% of partici-
stories of regret and to report similarities
pants were white and 42.94% were African
and differences in regret stories as reported
15 McAdams, D. P. (2019). “I Am What Survives Me”: Generativity and the self. In J. Frey and C. Vogler (Eds.), Self-Transcendence
and virtue: Perspectives from philosophy, psychology, and theology (pp. 251-273). London: Routledge.
16 Erikson, The life cycle completed.
17 Keyes, C. L. M. (1998). Social well-being. Social psychology quarterly, 121-140.
83
American. Additionally, participants filled Interview, participants were asked to de-
out online self-report measures before scribe their respective lives as if they were
each interview to collect information on novels, being sure to name chapters, key
demographics and measures of genera- scenes, characters, and themes. To sample
tivity, ego-integrity, and psychological the narration of regret, we considered the
well-being, among a host of other psycho- following question that was asked as a part
logical and social constructs. of the larger interview:
Measurement “Everybody experiences failure and
Generativity. Each participant completed regrets in life, even for the happiest and
luckiest lives. Looking back over your
the Loyola Generativity Scale before each
entire life, please identify and describe
interview to measure generativity.18 The
the greatest failure or regret you have
scale measures concern about and activity experienced. The failure or regret can
involving the promotion of the well-being occur in any area of your life – work,
of future generations. Participants rate family, friendships, or any other area.
20 items on a 4-point scale ranging from Please describe the failure or regret and
zero (never applies to me) to three (always the way in which the failure or regret
applies to me). came to be. How have you coped with
Ego-integrity. Each participant com- this failure or regret? What effect has
pleted the Northwestern Ego Integrity this failure or regret had on you and
Scale19 before each interview to measure your life story?”
ego-integrity. The scale measures both Procedure
ego-integrity and despair as well as coher- A graduate student or postdoctoral fellow
ence, acceptance, and wholeness, and asks administered interviews lasting approx-
participants to rate 15 different items on a imately two hours to each participant at
6-point scale ranging from one (strongly three different points over a 10-year peri-
disagree) to six (strongly agree). od using a standardized life-story protocol
Psychological Well-Being. Each developed by Dan P. McAdams.21 Inter-
participant completed the 42-item scale of view questions asked about the life stories
Psychological Well-Being (PWB) designed of participants, including questions on best
by Ryff and Keyes.20 The scale measures six and worst memories, turning points, and
different aspects of well-being: autonomy, regrets, but only the interview question on
environmental mastery, personal growth, regret was used for data analysis.
positive relations with others, purpose in The coding scheme was developed
life, and self-acceptance. Participants rate by reading the first 40 interviews. Two
42 items on a 6-point scale ranging from independent coders assigned quantitative
one (strongly disagree) to six (strongly values for each item, and recorded descrip-
agree). tive information about what the regret
Regret Narratives. In The Life Story
18 McAdams, D. P., & de St. Aubin, E. (1992). A theory of generativity and its assessment through self-report, behavioral acts, and
narrative themes in autobiography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 1003–1015.
19 Janis, L., Canak, T., Machado, M. A., Green, R. M., & McAdams, D. P. (2011). Development and validation of the Northwestern
Ego Integrity Scale. Evanston, IL.: Northwestern University.
20 Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psy-
chology, 69, 719-727.
21 McAdams, D. P. (2013). The redemptive self: Stories Americans live by (revised and expanded edition). New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press.
84
was about and what the methods of coping to think about it), benefit finding (con-
were. struing a positive meaning), develop-
1. Object of regret: The topic or object ing goals, taking direct action to solve
of the participant’s regret. Coding for the problem, religion, social support
this collects basic descriptive. Coders (from family or friends), atonement,
classified each participant’s response as forgiveness, and rumination.
fitting in at least one of the following 4. Degree of resolution: The degree to
categories, which were not mutually which participants are perceived to
exclusive: romantic love or marriage, have resolved their regrets. Coding for
children, other family issues (e.g., par- degree of resolution allows for analysis
ents, siblings, in-laws), friendships, ca- of the first hypothesis. Coders rated
reer, financial issues, education, phys- participants on a 5-point scale, with
ical appearance, personality/character one being low and five being high (in-
(personal traits), and other (list). ter-rater reliability: r = 0.59).
2. Omission versus commission: 5. Internal versus external source of
Whether participants have regrets regret: Whether the source of regret
of omission, meaning they regret not is internal and it is perceived that the
taking certain actions, or regrets of participants blame themselves for their
commission, meaning they regret regret, or if the source is external and it
taking certain actions. Like coding for is perceived that the participants blame
object of regret, coding for omission someone or something else for their
and commission collects descriptive. regret. Coding for the source of regret
Coders rated participant responses on allows for analysis of the first part of
a 3-point scale, with a score of one in- the second hypothesis. Coders rated
dicating a regret of omission, a score participant responses on a 3-point
of two indicating a mix of commission scale, with a score of one indicating
and omission, or if it was indetermi- the regret is internal and caused by
nate or could not be coded, and a score the self, and a score of three indicating
of three indicating a regret of commis- the regret was caused by someone else,
sion (inter-rater reliability: r = 0.66). something else, or the environment
3. Method of coping: The ways in which (inter-rater reliability: r = 0.51).
participants chose to cope with, deal 6. Hopefulness for the future: The de-
with, resolve, or handle their regrets. gree of overall optimism or pessimism
Coding for method of coping collects that the subject expresses throughout
descriptive information about the the narrative. Coding for hopefulness
kinds, frequency, and effectiveness of for the future allows for analysis of the
the coping methods participants used. second part of the second hypothesis.
The following were the methods that Coders rated participant responses on
participants used most often to cope a 5-point scale, with a score of one be-
with their regrets, which were not ing low and five being high (inter-rater
mutually exclusive: denial, ignoring reliability: r = 0.55).
the problem/issue, rationalization
(explaining or finding an excuse), cog- Results
nitive reframing (finding a good way Taking scores for generativity (M = 43.16,
85
T Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Total Sample
Mean Standard Deviation Minimum Maximum

Generativity 43.16 8.88 17.00 58.00
Ego-Integrity 4.32 0.66 2.33 5.93
Psychological Well-Being 202.65 26.45 113.00 245.00
Omission vs. Commission 1.68 0.74 1.00 3.00
Internal vs. External 1.64 0.75 1.00 3.00
Degree of Resolution 2.87 0.98 1.00 3.00
Hopefulness 3.46 1.11 1.00 3.00
T Table 2: Descriptive Statistics Comparing White Adults and African American Adults
White Adults African American Adults

Mean Standard Deviation Mean Standard Deviation
Generativity 41.16 8.76 45.54 8.52
Ego-Integrity 4.17 0.68 4.54 0.60
Hopefulness 3.40 1.11 3.52 1.13
T Table 3: Descriptive Statistics Comparing Men and Women
Men Women
Mean Standard Deviation Mean Standard Deviation
Generativity 42.40 8.82 43.48 8.93
Ego-Integrity 4.19 0.71 4.39 0.62
Hopefulness 3.28 1.10 3.56 1.11
86
SD = 8.88), ego-integrity (M = 4.32, SD tendency towards more regrets of omis-
= .66), and psychological well-being (M sion rather than regrets of commission (M
=202.65, SD =26.45), we converted them = 1.68, SD = .74) and towards more regrets
to Z scores and added them together in attributed to internal sources rather than
order to assign scores for each of the par- external ones (M = 1.64, SD = .75). Simi-
ticipants for the variable of psychosocial larly, scores of resolution (M = 2.87, SD =
adaptation (M = -0.022, SD = 2.48). We .98) were a bit below the midpoint, while
found that scores for omission versus scores of hopefulness (M = 3.46, SD = 1.11)
commission and internal versus external were a bit above the midpoint. Table 1
source of regret tended to be below the displays the means, standard deviations,
arithmetic midpoint, suggesting a slight minimums, and maximums of scores of
T Table 4: Frequencies and Instances of Objects of Regret
Object of Regret Instances Frequency

Career 36 24%
Education 34 23%
Marriage/Romantic Relationships 31 21%
Children/Parenting 26 17%
Family 14 9%
Friendship 13 9%
Financial Issues 10 7%
Personal Character Trait 9 6%
Other 5 3%
T Table 5: Frequencies and Instances of Methods of Coping
Method of Coping Instances Frequency

Rumination 47 32%
Direct Action 39 26%
Rationalization 36 24%
Cognitive Reframing 30 20%
Benefit Finding 27 18%
Ignoring the Regret 18 12%
Forgiveness 16 11%
Social Support 13 9%
Religion 10 7%
Atonement 8 5%
Making Goals 5 3%
Denial 4 3%
87
psychosocial adaptation, generativity, regrets of career choices, 23% had regrets
ego-integrity, psychological well-being, of education, 21% expressed regrets in
degree of omission versus commission, their marriage or romantic relationships,
degree of internal versus external source 17% regretted parenting or relationships
blame, degree of resolution, and hope- with their children, 9% had regrets relating
fulness for the future, with respect to the to other family members, 9% had regrets
overall sample, inclusive of white adults, concerning friendships, 7% regretted fi-
African American adults, men, and wom- nancial issues, 6% regretted some personal
en. character trait, and 3% had other regrets
African American adults (M = 1.06, not included in our coding scheme. Table
SD = 2.13) scored significantly higher 4 displays the instances and frequencies of
than white adults (M = -.78, SD = 2.46) the different objects of regret.
on psychosocial adaptation, t(128) = 4.38, Similarly, when studying methods
p < .001. Indeed, African American adults of coping, we found that 32% ruminated
scored significantly higher than white and excessively worried about their regret,
adults on generativity (M = 45.54, SD = 26% took direct action, 24% rationalized
8.52; M = 41.16, SD = 8.76), t(157) = 3.17, or explained away the regret, 20% utilized
p < .01; ego-integrity (M = 4.54, SD = .60; cognitive reframing to think about their
M = 4.17, SD = .68), t(128) = 3.19, p < .01; regrets in a positive way, 18% found some
and psychological well-being (M = 211.7, benefit in their regret, 12% ignored the re-
SD = 24.18; M = 195.5, SD = 26.37), t(158) gret, 11% forgave themselves or others, 9%
= 4.01, p < .01. However, when examining reached out for social support, 7% turned
the architecture of the regrets themselves, to religion, 5% atoned for their regret, 3%
there were no significant group differences developed goals to assist with coping, and
for regrets of omission and commission, 3% utilized denial. Table 5 displays the
source of regret, degree of resolution, or instances and frequencies of the different
hopefulness for the future. Table 2 displays methods of coping.
race differences. Overall, we found strong support that
There were only group differenc- psychosocial adaptation is related to degree
es in gender in relation to psychological of resolution. As predicted in our first hy-
well-being, with women (M = 206.3, SD pothesis, we found a significant positive
= 26.06) scoring significantly higher than correlation between degree of resolution
men (M = 196.1, SD = 26.11), t(161) =2.39, and psychosocial adaptation (r = .25, p <
p < .05. Similar to our findings with race, .01). In fact, there was a small but positive
there were no significant group differences correlation between resolution of regret
for regrets of omission and commission, and all the variables that operationalized
source of regret, or degree of resolution. psychosocial adaptation, including gener-
However, there was a trend towards wom- ativity (r = .19, p < .05), ego-integrity (r =
en showing higher hopefulness for the .19, p < .05), and psychological well-being
future (M = 3.56, SD = 1.11; M = 3.28, SD (r = .25, p < .01). After running a partial
= 1.10), t(147) = 1.92, p = .056. Table 3 dis- correlation controlling for income, which
plays gender differences. was significantly positively correlated with
When examining participants’ ob- degree of resolution (r = .27, p < .001), we
jects of regret, we found that 24% had found that degree of resolution was still
88
“The most common regrets in late to midlife adults are those
relating to career decisions and education, followed by
regrets concerning relationships with significant others and
family members.”
significantly positively correlated with ego-integrity, and psychological well-be-

psychosocial adaptation (r = .26, p < .01). ing. However, these associations were all
Essentially, findings indicate that late to small, and the largest relationship was not
midlife adults who scored high on self-re- with ego-integrity, as predicted. We had
port measures of psychosocial adaptation, hypothesized that ego-integrity would
generativity, ego-integrity, and psycho- have the strongest correlation with degree
logical well-being tended to tell stories of of resolution since at its essence ego-integ-
regret in which their regrets were more rity is about acceptance of one’s life and life
resolved than adults who scored lower on choices, which aligns with resolving re-
these measures. grets. This hypothesis was not supported,
Our second hypothesis was only par- as psychological well-being had a stronger
tially supported in that while there was a association with degree of resolution than
significant positive correlation between ego-integrity, although this difference was
psychosocial adaptation and hopefulness not significant.
for the future (r = .24, p < .01), there was For our second hypothesis, we pre-
no significant correlation between psycho- dicted that psychosocial adaptation would
social adaptation and attribution of exter- be positively associated with both attribu-
nal regrets. These findings indicate that tion of external blame and hopefulness for
late to midlife adults who scored higher on the future. However, we found that psy-
self-report measures of psychosocial adap- chosocial adaptation was only positively
tation tended to tell their stories of regret associated with hopefulness. These results
with more hope for the future, or belief show that blaming the self as the source of
that the future would be more favorable regret does not have a significant relation-
than the past and present. ship with psychosocial adaptation. Rather,
the amount of hope for the future plays a
Discussion role in determining this. This was as ex-
Turning to understand how regret is pected, as previous findings have shown
related to psychosocial adaptation, we that having hope is linked to psychosocial
hypothesized that the degree of resolution adaptation, especially in patients under
of regret is positively associated with medical care.22 As applied to late to midlife
psychosocial adaptation. This hypothesis adults, hope may be key in securing high
was supported, as not only was degree psychosocial adaptation because it may
of resolution positively associated with allow people to accept the possibility of
psychosocial adaptation, but it was also a better future in which the regret is less
positively associated with generativity, salient or relevant, giving them something
22 Livneh, H., & Martz, E. (2014). Coping strategies and resources as predictors of psychosocial adaptation among people with
spinal cord injury. Rehabilitation psychology, 59(3), 329.
89
to work towards and expect. college education.
Results from this study indicate that Discrepancies in the number of
the most common regrets in late to mid- participants who produced self-reported
life adults are those relating to career de- measures of generativity, ego-integrity,
cisions and education, followed by regrets and psychological well-being were a lim-
concerning relationships with significant itation to the study. Due to the nature of
others and family members. This may be the FLSA study and dataset, measures for
the case due to the demographics of the ego-integrity were not set in place until
participants, who are all baby boomers. In- later in the longitudinal study. As a result,
deed, according to the Pew Research Cen- while 163 participants produced scores for
ter, only 24% of baby boomers received a generativity and psychosocial well-being,
bachelor’s degree or higher, compared to only 133 participants produced scores for
39% of millennials.23 ego-integrity. Therefore, there were only
Additionally, we found that the most 132 standardized scores for psychosocial
common method of coping — or rather adaptation, as it was necessary for each
handling the regret — was rumination. In participant to have all three scores in order
essence, our findings showed that a large to produce scores for psychosocial adap-
number of participants relied on rumina- tation. Additionally, only 149 participants
tion, therefore failing to cope with the re- were able to articulate regret narratives, as
gret, rather than utilizing healthy methods the others claimed they had no regrets in
of coping. Of those who were able to cope their lives.
with their regrets, the second and third Findings from this study will provide
most common methods were using direct insight into adult personality development
action and rationalization, respectively. and provide an overarching framework
Direct action is a kind of action-focused on how regret influences social and per-
coping and involves actively doing some- sonality development. As midlife adults
thing to reverse the regret, such as going transition into lateadulthood, some may
back to school to complete a bachelor’s have difficulty adjusting and display lower
degree that one regretted not finishing. generativity, lower ego-integrity, or low-
Rationalization, on the other hand, is more er psychological well-being. Especially as
cognitive and involves explaining away the adults belonging to Generation X reach
regret and justifying it to the self in order late adulthood, more and more will find
to alleviate the negative effect caused by themselves facing their regret narratives.
regret. Since the most common regrets of Although still far off in the future, millen-
this sample were related to career and edu- nials, who are currently the largest gener-
cation, problem-focused coping may have ation according to Pew Research Center,
been the most appropriate since many of will likely also grapple with similar strug-
these regrets were able to be reversed or gles as they reach mid to late adulthood.24
reconciled by taking action to undo the As a result, forming a strong understand-
cause of the regret, such as by finishing ing of how regret stories influence this
23 Bialik, K., & Fry, R. (2019, February 14). How Millennials compare with prior generations. Retrieved May 16, 2020, from
https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/essay/millennial-life-how-young-adulthood-today-compares-with-prior-generations/
24 Fry, R. (2020, April 28). Millennials overtake Baby Boomers as America’s largest generation.
Retrieved May 16, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/28/millennials-overtake-baby-boomers-as-amer-
icas-largest-generation/
90
life stage transition can be key in helping much work to do, the findings from the
struggling adults overcome these devel- current study and other similar studies on
opmental obstacles. Future studies should generativity, ego-integrity, and psycholog-
explore the direction of causality between ical well-being such as the one proposed
these associations, as it is currently uncer- may inform research in clinical settings in
tain whether low psychosocial adaptation developing interventions for late to midlife
leads to regret stories with lower regret adults struggling with psychosocial adapta-
resolution, or vice versa. Though there is tion. ■
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91
92 FEATURE
A Look Back
at Dearborn
Observatory
By: Andrew Laeuger
A brief history of the Dearborn Observatory, from its historic rise to its quiet and
unsuspecting presence on campus today.
Hidden in the cove formed by the a patron’s level of access to the telescope.
Technological Institute, Silverman Hall, For example, a donation of $100 in the
and the Garrett-Evangelical Theological 1860s would earn one lifetime access to the
Seminary, the Dearborn Observatory lies observation room.
secluded from Northwestern’s skyline, a In that same spirit of enthusiasm for
reminder of the University’s historical role astronomy, the Chicago Astronomical
in observational astronomy. Society would not settle for anything
The Observatory began not as a less than the best. One of the founding
project funded by bureaucratic grant members of the Society, Thomas Hoyne,
sources nor by University budget decisions, traveled from Chicago to Boston in four
but instead out of pure public interest in the days to purchase what was, at the time, the
beauty of the heavens. An original account largest refracting lens ever produced. The
of the establishment of Dearborn tells how polished piece of glass had a diameter of
money was raised under the condition one and a half feet!
that donation size would correspond to Equipped with one of the most
FEATURE 93
powerful refracting telescopes in the measurements of the parallax of the sun to
world, the Observatory became effective date.
at producing high-resolution images of However, as early as the late 1910s,
the night sky on photographic plates. ambient light pollution began affecting
This precision allowed for two types of astronomical data collection at the
astronomical measurements to be carried Observatory. Then-Director Philip Fox
out with great accuracy: the determination began to grow wary of the proliferation of
of the distance from Earth to a star based Chicago’s presence in the night sky, citing
on its parallax1 and the detection of double the inexorable spread of smoke and electric
stars.2 lights as the city continued to expand.
Throughout its lifetime, Dearborn Even today, new sources of light
has accounted for the discovery of more pollution, like the clusters of StarLink
than 100 binary stars and thousands of satellites launched by SpaceX starting in
long-exposure observations of dim red 2019, make the work of ground-based
stars.3 It has also improved precision in astronomical observatories ever more
models of the positions of objects orbiting difficult. One can only hope that we begin
throughout the solar system.4 to appreciate the role of astronomy in both
One of the most famous discoveries the ancient stories that have inspired our
from the lens that was installed in modern culture and the contemporary
Dearborn’s main telescope was the discoveries that drive us towards new
detection of Sirius B. While testing the lens understandings of the universe. Then,
prior to its sale to Hoyne, lensmaker Alvin with steps to reduce light pollution and
Graham Clark became the first person to bring new sources of funding to this all-
observe that Sirius A, the brightest star in important science, it may be possible to
the night sky, has a companion (Sirius B) make Chicago into a hospitable location for
that is about 10,000 times dimmer than astronomy once again and allow Dearborn
itself. to provide the same sense of wonder to
Additionally, in the early 1930s, its guests that it would have brought 150
astronomers used photographs taken years ago.
by the Dearborn telescope of the dwarf Note: The Observatory hopes to reopen to
planet Eros as it completed a near-Earth the public for its traditional Friday night open
pass to conduct one of the most complete viewing hours by Fall 2021. ■
1 A parallax is the slight change in a star’s location in the sky based on our own position in our orbit about the sun.
2 Double start are stars which when seen through our eyes appear as one bright spot, but are actually composed of a pair of stars
orbiting about each other
3 With enough searching, one can dig up the hundreds of pages of meticulously catalogued observations, dating back to the first
years of the 20th century, which the observatory’s directors published in hopes of passing on all that they learned to the next gener-
ation of astronomers.
4 Today, the original Dearborn refracting telescope has a home in Chicago’s Adler Planetarium, where the public can continue to
admire the skill and craftsmanship required to assemble such a powerful and elegant instrument.
94 FEATURE
Department of Legal Studies
Faculty Adviser: Joanna Grisinger
“Territory Folks Should

Stick Together”:
The Role of the Law and
the “Other” in Daniel Fish’s
Oklahoma!
by Taris Hoffman
Oklahoma! was written with the intention and to examine how legal proceedings are
of boosting morale and celebrating the represented in contemporary pop culture.
strength of a unified United States of By subverting traditional interpretations
America post-World War II.1 The play of Oklahoma!, Fish uses a piece about the
tells the story of a young woman named greatness of an idealized America to impli-
Laurey Williams who is being courted cate audiences in and express displeasure
by the heroic cowboy Curly McLain and with the corruption in the American legal
her menacing farmhand Jud Fry. When system, a directorial stance not often taken
Laurey chooses Curly as her husband, Jud in artistic renderings of court cases.2
returns on their wedding day to dispute During the historical era of Oklaho-
the match, and the encounter escalates ma!, the Oklahoma Territory had a strong
to violence, leaving Jud dead at the hand Black presence and frequent racial conflict.
of Curly. A trial ensues in which Curly is The post-Reconstruction era saw many
found not guilty, and Curly and Laurey African Americans emigrate to the Okla-
come of age with the Oklahoma Territory homa Territory and attempt to form all-
as it moves towards statehood. This thesis Black settlements in areas that were previ-
analyzes the role of the law in Daniel Fish’s ously inhabited by mostly white and Native
revival of Oklahoma! in order to discern American populations.3 While emigration
how the production portrays the legal re- was happening in large numbers and
percussions of violence towards the “other” other Black settlements were developing
1 Kirle, “Reconciliation, Resolution, and the Political Role of Oklahoma! in American Consciousness,” 251-274.; Bond, “Still
Dreaming of Paradise: Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma!, South Pacific, and Postwar America.”; Filmer, Rimmer, and Walsh,
“Oklahoma!: Ideology and Politics in the Vernacular Tradition of the American Musical,” 381-395.
2 Papke, “The American Courtroom Trial: Pop Culture, Courthouse Realities, and the Dream World of Justice,” 919-920, 931.;
Kuzina, “The Social Issue Courtroom Drama as an Expression of American Popular,” 94-95.; Kohm, “The People’s Law versus
Judge Judy Justice: Two Models of Law in American Reality-Based Courtroom TV,” 725.
3 Catherine Lynn Adams, “Africanizing the Territory: The History, Memory and Contemporary Imagination of Black Frontier
Settlements in the Oklahoma Territory.,” (PhD diss., University of Massachusetts Amherst, 2010), 9-11.
95
across the United States of America, these central characters, one ensemble member
all-Black communities were particularly (Mike), and one dancer (Lead Dancer).
concentrated in the Oklahoma Territory.4 8
This cast is diverse in race and physical
White popular culture mocked these Black ableness, a choice that is Fish’s alone, as it
separatist communities and committed is not designated by the script.9 The show’s
acts of racial violence against them. How- heroine Laurey Williams is played by
ever, despite the racial backlash, these set- Rebecca Naomi Jones, a biracial woman,
tlements continued to grow and make both and Gabrielle Hamilton, a Black woman,
economic and political advancements.5 represents Laurey’s inner thoughts during
White settlers and Native Americans, feel- the Dream Ballet as the Lead Dancer.10
ing threatened, took legal action against Additionally, the federal marshal Cord
these African American settlements, at- Elam and the ensemble member Mike are
tempting to enact laws that would limit the both played by Black men.11 The commu-
civil rights of the Black population, make nity’s matriarch (Aunt Eller), judge (An-
segregation legal, and discourage any fur- drew Carnes), local “Persian” peddler (Ali
ther immigration.6 When statehood was Hakim), hero (Curly McLain), villain (Jud
established, “Black codes” and Jim Crow Fry), and other members (Will Parker,
laws were put into place, causing political Ado Annie Carnes, Gertie Cummings) are
and social conditions to worsen for the all cast as white men and women.
Black settlers and thus ending the All-Black The 1955 Oklahoma! film features
Town Movement, as there were no longer traditional casting and expected character-
opportunities for African Americans to ization. The 31-person ensemble is com-
create a better life for themselves in Black prised of white or white passing actors that
settlements.7 These all-Black settlements all “radiate good cheer … except for the
would have existed during Oklahoma!, but baleful Jud.”12 The swarm of traditionally
they are not acknowledged by the script or beautiful actors are able to create a visually
traditionally considered in casting. codified ensemble, as they all resemble each
Daniel Fish’s production of Oklahoma! other. This differs from Fish’s production,
acknowledges the historical Black presence in which each actor functions as an indi-
in the Oklahoma Territory with its casting. vidual with a unique point of view. Fish’s
The pared-down cast of 12 consists of 10 retelling also chooses to infuse race more
4 Adams, “Africanizing the Territory: The History, Memory and Contemporary Imagination of Black Frontier Settlements in the
Oklahoma Territory.,” 11-12.
Oklahoma Territory.,” 11-14.
Oklahoma Territory.,” 14-15.; Contested Territory: Whites, Native Americans, and African Americans in Oklahoma, 1865-1907 (1996) by
Murray R. Wickett covers the legal battles between these racial groups.
Oklahoma Territory.,” 17.
8 Program for Roger and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma at the Circle in the Square Theatre, New York. Playbill, 2020
9 “Oklahoma! Musical Script,” The Musical Lyrics, accessed January 8th, 2020, https://www.themusicallyrics.com/b/348-broad-
way-musical-scripts/3611-oklahoma-musical-script.html.
10 Program for Roger and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma at the Circle in the Square Theatre, New York. Playbill, 2020.; Ellen Gamerman,
“‘American Idiot’s’ Rebecca Naomi Jones on Green Day, Billie Joe Armstrong, and Singing in Her Underwear,” The Wall Street
Journal, April 2, 2010, https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2010/04/02/american-idiots-rebecca-naomi-jones-on-green-day-billie-joe-
armstrong-and-singing-in-her-underwear/.
11 Program for Roger and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma at the Circle in the Square Theatre, New York. Playbill, 2020.
12 “Oklahoma! (1955),” IMDB, accessed January 8, 2020, https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0048445/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0.; William K.
Zinsser, “‘Oklahoma!,’” Herald Tribune, October 11, 1955.
96
prominently into the storytelling by put- Curly is not seen in the 1955 film. Instead,
ting a Black woman and her sexuality at theGordon MacRae is a “wonderfully relaxed
center of the narrative and giving a Black and unaffected” hero who is “not ... every-
man a leadership role within the commu- body’s idea of a raw-boned cowboy, but he
nity as a federal marshal. In reviews of the
is all smiles with exuberance.” 16MacRae’s
film, Shirley Jones is described as playingCurly is a traditional hero who is in
Laurey to perfection as the “epitome of control of his actions, and he establishes
well scrubbed Midwestern girldom” with himself as a trustworthy protector. As with
the film “[capturing] the light in her eyesLaurey, Aunt Eller projects more strength
… and the horror that clouds her face when in the revival than the 1955 film. Charlotte
Jud gets too close. Those are her two main Greenwood’s Aunt Eller is described as
emotions, but they may well be the only “rangy,” with “real compassion to the robust
two that the role calls for, and Miss Jonesrusticity of the role,” while Mary Testa’s
is an engaging heroine.”13 Rebecca Naomi Aunt Eller is “rough,” and “authoritative.”17
Jones completely rejects this interpretation
She is no longer a simple, delicate mater-
with her Laurey, as reviews describe her nal figure, but a significant matriarch with
as “arresting, determined, and smart. She control over the community. The shift in
is presented unvainly, in jeans and a plaidcasting and characterization differentiates
shirt, but she radiates confidence and beau-
Fish’s production from its predecessors
ty, a notable contrast to Curly’s ambling and allows it to engage with America’s
peacock.”14 Jones gives Laurey a point of relationship with race and the law.
view and a voice in Fish’s production, as The characterization of the racialized
she experiences a large range of conflicting
foils Ali Hakim and Jud Fry is significant
human emotions. Laurey’s love interest is to the interpretation of the legal elements
also subject to reinterpretation, as reviews
in Oklahoma!. The two men’s actions de-
of the revival argue that he is fine them as distinct opposites. Ali Hakim
not your usual solid slab of beefcake exists as a sympathetic, comedic figure,
with a strapping tenor … this lad of the and although the traveling peddler is an
prairies is wiry and wired, so full of outsider, he is ultimately accepted into the
unchanneled sexual energy you expect community because of his willingness to
him to implode. … Doing his best to assimilate. Aunt Eller initially rejects his
project a confidence he doesn’t entirely attempt to align himself with her when she
feel, to the accompaniment of a down- says, “I ain’t yer Aunt Eller! Don’t you call
home guitar, he seems so palpably
me Aunt Eller, you little wart. I’m mad at
young. As is often true of big boys with
you,” and criticizes the quality of his prod-
unsettled hormones, he also reads as
just a little dangerous.15 ucts, but she still humors him, eventually
relenting and saying, “Bring yer trappin’s
This charged and immature version of inside; mebbe I c’n find you sump’n to eat
13 Zinsser, “‘Oklahoma!.’”
14 Sarah Larson, “Daniel Fish’s Dark Take on Oklahoma!,” New Yorker, October 15, 2018, https://www.newyorker.com/maga-
zine/2018/10/22/daniel-fishs-dark-take-on-oklahoma.
15 Ben Brantley, “A Smashing ‘Oklahoma!’ Is Reborn in the Land of Id,” New York Times, April 7, 2019, https://www.nytimes.
com/2019/04/07/theater/oklahoma-review.html.
16 Bosley Crowther, “The Screen: ‘Oklahoma!’ Is Okay,” New York Times, October 11, 1955.; Zinsser, “‘Oklahoma!.’”
17 Crowther, “The Screen: ‘Oklahoma!’ Is Okay.”; Larson, “Daniel Fish’s Dark Take on Oklahoma!.”; Brantley, A Smashing ‘Oklaho-
ma!’ Is Reborn in the Land of Id.”
97
and drink.”18 Despite being described as “burly, scowling man,” “bullet-colored,”
“Persian” in the script, Ali Hakim is clearly and “growly.”25 In reviews that address the
coded as a Jewish character by Rogers and film adaptation, he is referred to as “dark
Hammerstein.19 Historically, many Jews, and vengeful,” “a meaty brute with an
specifically of German descent, were ped- unplaceable accent,” and “less degenerate
dlers on the American frontier, and his and little more human and pitiful than
last name is most likely derived from the he is usually made.”26 The unshaven, dirt-
Yiddish word “hacham,” meaning “clever smeared villain is both visually coded as a
man.”20 Despite possessing racialized traits racialized “other” in his disheveled, dark
that “other” him, Ali Hakim is constantly appearance that directly contrasts with the
inserting himself into the community, and clean-cut, bright ensemble, and also aural-
by the end of the play, he has fully assimi- ly, as his accent in the film differentiates
lated, as he marries one of the central char- him as an ambiguously racialized figure
acters, Gertie Cummings.21 Ali Hakim is a separate from the all-American commu-
racialized “other” that actively assimilates nity.27 He is also geographically separated
into the community by complying with the from the community, as he does not live in
community’s moral code in both the 1955 the pristine house28 of his employers Aunt
film and the Daniel Fish revival, and he is Eller and Laurey, but in a smokehouse with
accepted by the farmers and the cowmen as the rats and his collection of pornographic
Oklahoma becomes a state images lining the wall.29 Jud is not only an
The character of Jud Fry starkly outsider but also a deviant. With his pro-
contrasts to that of Ali Hakim, but is still duction, Fish keeps these “othering” traits
coded as a racialized “other” by Rogers and of isolation, sexual aggression, poverty,
Hammerstein. Jud lacks Ali Hakim’s the- and filth as an undercurrent of Jud’s char-
atricality and eagerness to assimilate, with acterization but also layers in moments
a performance grounded in realism and of sympathy for Jud, as he “is played with
isolation from the rest of the community.22 great sensitivity and quaking instability by
Both Jud and Ali Hakim are drifters, as a the lean, fair Vaill. This complicates him;
farm hand and a peddler respectively, but he could be your high-school crush, with a
Jud is perceived as a “cultural outsider.”23 frisson of Kurt Cobain.”30 This iteration of
While Ali Hakim is coded as a “white” Jud possesses a “charismatic, hungry lone-
immigrant, Jud is characterized as a “dark” liness to the part that’s guaranteed to haunt
man.24 Stage directions refer to Jud as a your nightmares,” and plays to the human-
18 The Musical Lyrics, “Oklahoma! Musical Script.”

19 The Musical Lyrics, “Oklahoma! Musical Script.”; Most, “‘We Know We Belong to the Land’: The Theatricality of Assimilation in
Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma!,” 82.
20 Most, “‘We Know We Belong to the Land’: The Theatricality of Assimilation in Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma!,” 84.
23 Larson, “Daniel Fish’s Dark Take on Oklahoma!.”
26 Zinsser, “‘Oklahoma!.’”; Larson, “Daniel Fish’s Dark Take on Oklahoma!.”; Crowther, “The Screen: ‘Oklahoma!’ Is Okay.”
27 Oklahoma!. Directed by Fred Zinnemann. Los Angeles, California: Rogers & Hammerstein Productions, 1995: 16:00, 19:57.
28 Zinnemann, Oklahoma!, 19:20.
98
“
Each design element in Daniel Fish’s Oklahoma!
rejects the abundant, rose-tinted depiction in the
[1955] film, setting the trial scene up to be an
impactful reflection of reality.
ity of the character instead of the villainy. moments of complete darkness and some
”
31
By strengthening the sympathy for Jud, green- and red-outs. The uniform lighting
the trial of Curly, his murderer, becomes throughout the audience and playing space
a significant event in the play instead of creates a sense of community, encourag-
a procedural roadblock to overcome to ing audience members to interact with
achieve the happy ending. each other as well as the actors. Instead
The design elements of Daniel Fish’s of experiencing a theatrical experience
Oklahoma! also diverge from traditional ex- from a distance, the line between actor
pectations and allow audiences to view this and audience becomes blurred. The set
show as a part of the real, contemporary design is also minimalistic, featuring only
world that they can actively engage with. a few picnic tables and chairs identical to
While reviews describe the 1955 film as the ones that serve as seating for the on-
“gay to look at,”32 Daniel Fish’s Oklahoma! stage audience members, a minimalistic
is “staged plainly.”33 Instead of beautiful sepia-toned backdrop loosely evoking the
party gowns, colorful neckerchiefs,34 and Oklahoma plain, guns ominously hanging
billowing suede chaps,35 designer Terese on the walls, and multicolored foil fringe
Wadden takes a contemporary direction strung up across the theater’s ceiling. Each
with the costumes. Distressed denim, crop design element in Daniel Fish’s Oklahoma!
tops, flannel, and skin-tight, well-worn rejects the abundant, rose-tinted depiction
leather chaps adorn Fish’s ensemble. Even in the film, setting the trial scene up to be
their party items are simple, functional, an impactful reflection of reality.
and contemporary, with the women don- The specific design elements in the
ning apparently handmade canvas dresses final scene of Fish’s Oklahoma! further
and the men swapping their flannel work diverge from tradition and contribute to
shirts for Jericho western shirts. Instead the messaging and emotional intensity
of creating another magical world of of the production. When Jud enters at
whimsy and beauty, Wadden’s costumes the beginning of the scene, he has on an
ground the play in a gritty sense of real- ill-fitting, worn brown suit. This is the
ity. The harsh lighting choices made by first time Jud has appeared on stage with-
designer Scott Zielinski contribute to this out his ragged base costume of old boots,
mood. The house lights are up for almost jeans, and a tattered flannel, and this shift
the entirety of the show, except for a few in physical appearance establishes a sense
31 Brantley, A Smashing ‘Oklahoma!’ Is Reborn in the Land of Id.”
32 Zinsser, “‘Oklahoma!.’”
34 Zinnemann, Oklahoma!, 1:35:13.
99
of rehabilitation and cultivates ethos. In the stage and house lights are up when
the 1955 film, Jud dons a filthy costume of Curly shoots Jud and is tried for murder,
a once-white, short-sleeved henley with implying that Curly took a much more
a deep v-neck, work pants, heavy boots, active role in Jud’s demise and involving
a belt, and suspenders,36 changing into a the audience as witnesses and ultimately
mismatched shirt and vest when taking excusers of the crime. After being found
Laurey to the dance.37 During the scene in not guilty in the film, Laurey and Curly
which he is murdered, Jud is again filthy. literally and figuratively emerge from the
He has removed his vest, his party shirt darkness and step into the bright sunlight
is unbuttoned with his sleeves rolled up, as they begin their lives together.41 The
and he is still wearing his work pants and lighting design in Fish’s revival emphasizes
boots. His appearance closely resembles his Curly’s culpability while the film’s design
initial costume, signifying regression, and detracts from his guilt. Similarly, Fish takes
it supports the subtext that Jud deserves a minimalistic approach to sound design,
his death.38 Another significant design with the deafening gunshot being the only
element in Fish’s Oklahoma! is Laurey and distinct noise in the calculated final por-
Curly’s wedding clothes. At the beginning tion of the play, where the movie leans on
of the wedding scene, they are joyous and the aural chaos that ensues42 during and af-
pure newlyweds wearing white. However, ter43 Jud’s murder. Both the set in the stage
when Curly shoots Jud, the pair is sprayed and the film version indicate to audiences
in fake blood, completely tarnishing the that they are being invited to view some-
cleanly white garments. The murder of Jud thing private, but the two portrayals have
has tainted this new matrimony, physically different degrees of intimacy. During the
marking both Laurey and Curly as guilty trial in the film adaptation, audiences are
parties, and they remain in these clothes given a window into the home, a private
during the trial scene in which they manip- space.44 In Fish’s version, the set includes
ulate the law. In the film, there is no gore the audience as the attendees of the trial, as
or blood depicted, and Laurey’s and Curly’s the cast shares picnic tables with the audi-
costumes remain unscathed, neither of ence members. The specific design choices
them carrying the emotional burden of Jud’s made in the final moments of Fish’s Okla-
death.39 The various lighting choices made homa! create sympathy for Jud, emphasize
in the film and Fish’s revival both hold sig- Curly’s autonomy in murdering him, and
nificance as well. During the post-wedding actively invite audiences to engage in the
encounter with Jud in the film, it is a dark scene’s heightened emotional intensity.
and shadowy night, obscuring the heroic The staging of Daniel Fish’s Okla-
Curly’s vision and resulting in Jud falling homa! is rich in nuance and meaning,
on his own knife.40 In Fish’s version, both revealing much about the production’s

40 Ibid.
100
point of view about the law. The show is that Laurey and Curly are perched upon,
performed on a thrust stage, which extends as he laughs manically. Curly acts quickly,
into the audience on three sides, with the pushing Laurey off the haystack to safety
audience sitting in the theater’s built-in and then jumping off the haystack himself,
seats as well as at picnic tables that line two knocking Jud to the ground.46 Once Curly
sides of the stage. Instead of a traditional sits up, he realizes that Jud has fallen on his
orchestra positioned out of sight in a pit, own knife and is dead.47 The men encir-
the re-arranged score is played by a sev- cle Curly and Jud, attempting to help any
en-piece folk and bluegrass-inspired en- way they can and rushing to bring Jud to
semble that sits on the stage and interacts a doctor.48 The trial then occurs, and the
with the actors freely, creating a sense of entire community piles into Aunt Eller and
reality and cultural authenticity. At inter- Laurey’s modest dining room. This creates
mission, all audience members are given a claustrophobic, frenetic stage picture as
chili and cornbread, further strengthening the cast huddles around the table where
the sense of community and camaraderie Judge Carnes is sitting to shout, laugh,
in the space. The thrust stage and close and interject their personal biases.49 The
proximity to the actors mean that audience blocking of these scenes emphasizes Jud’s
members are constantly interacting with culpability, as he instigates a life-threaten-
each other or the actors via eye contact ing, overwhelming event in which Curly is
or even direct address. The seating, the forced to respond instinctively. Curly’s ac-
acknowledgement of the existence of the tions are rational given the circumstances
band, and the presentation of a shared and would not have resulted in death had
meal for the show’s attendees ground the Jud not been holding a knife. The commu-
production in a sense of reality and allow nity witnessed this event, so the trial does
bonds to develop between actors and au- not hold significance, as they had already
dience members. These staging elements decided that Curly would receive the “not
create an overwhelming sense of intimacy guilty” verdict. Additionally, community
and community. Audiences are adopted members made their best effort to save Jud,
by what feels like a real community as getting him immediately to the doctor. No
opposed to watching a theatrical spectacle one in the community feels responsibility
from an emotional and physical distance. for the death of Jud, so Curly’s trial is not
Involving audiences implicates them in treated as a weighty event in the film.
events of the play and encourages a per- The staging decisions made by Daniel
sonal stake in the legal elements. Fish in the final scene of Oklahoma! inform
The 1955 film adaptation of Okla- the production’s representation of the law.
homa! shares very few staging similarities The scene begins with the introduction of
to Daniel Fish’s revival during its last few Curly and Laurey as a married couple, and
scenes. During a good-natured shivaree, the raucous celebration immediately falls
45
Jud returns to the farm and begins light- silent when Jud enters, announcing that
ing haystacks on fire, including the one he’s “got a present for the groom, but first
45 A noisy mock serenade for newlyweds.

101
[he] wants to kiss the bride.” He then slow- tact with the pair and laying down on his
ly crosses the stage to tenderly kiss Laurey back behind them. Laurey maintains eye
while a single tear falls down his cheek. contact with Jud while Curly does not, as
After crossing back to stand face to face his eyes are still trained straight ahead with
with Curly, Jud unwraps the box and drops the same glazed look he had when he shot
it to the ground to reveal a pistol, loads Jud. Laurey quickly becomes distraught,
it, and places it in Curly’s hand. For a few dropping Curly’s hand and running back to
moments, the men remain in this intimate Jud to kneel by his side. Curly then drops
position, with Jud’s hand wrapped around to his knees and acknowledges the weapon
the wrist that Curly is using to hold the and the literal blood on his hands. Howev-
weapon, gently petting him with his thumb er, he ignores Jud’s body completely. Jud’s
and tearfully staring into Curly’s blank, body is not touched for the remainder of
hardened eyes. Anticipating an altercation, the show. His body remaining on stage is a
Laurey disrupts the stillness of the scene physical reminder of the murder; yet, it is
by hurriedly crossing to stand between not acknowledged by anyone but Laurey, as
Curly and Jud, acting as a human shield, Curly is only concerned about himself. Jud
standing equidistant from both men. This is a dispensable “other,” and no one will miss
instinctual fear and urgency dissolves into him. This blocking indicates that Laurey is
thoughtful indecision as she looks back and questioning her choice to align herself with
forth between these two men. Eventually, Curly and the community, abandoning her
she walks to Curly’s side, clinging on to his individual autonomy as an “other.”
arm. Jud absorbs her decision and begins The blocking during Curly’s trial is
to take a deliberate step forward, both to- static, heightening the tension between the
wards the newly married couple and the characters on the stage. Laurey remains
exit that is positioned behind them. Curly stationary next to Jud’s body with her gaze
immediately and unflinchingly raises his primarily trained on him, while Curly
arm and shoots Jud with the gun that was stands behind and offsets the pair. The rest
his wedding gift. This staging allows the of the ensemble remains lining the edges of
audience and the majority of the cast to the stage. Notably, the three main players
witness Curly murdering Jud unnecessar- in the trial are positioned in a triangular
ily, humanizes Jud by exhibiting his inner configuration. Aunt Eller and Andrew
turmoil, and emphasizes the indecision Carnes, the acting judge, are sitting next to
Laurey feels about aligning herself with the each other on one side of the stage, while
community or the “othered” individuals. Cord Elam, the federal marshal, is sitting
After the gun goes off, Curly and positioned in between them on the other
Laurey are left covered in blood, while Jud edge of the stage, physically representing
stands there staring at them. This stage the two-against-one power struggle. The
picture is held in extended silence, and no entire ensemble is abnormally still, and
effort to feign death or injury is made by the when micro-movements are necessary, they
actor who portrays Jud. Finally, the ensem- are done at an incredibly slow tempo. This
ble begins quietly asking questions about minimalism heightens the importance of the
what happened and if Jud is alive. After a trial, as it strips away all other distractions,
few more seconds of stillness, Jud walks and audiences are forced to be complicit in
around Laurey and Curly, making eye con- deliberate and obvious legal corruption.
102
The tone of the murder and trial Red Scare in order to protect itself from the
scenes in the 1955 film and Daniel Fish’s threat of communism and fortify the nation
revival is starkly different. In the film, Jud from foreigners during the Cold War era.54
is portrayed as deranged, and his attack on Additionally, the civil rights movement
Curly and Laurey is both unexpected and had just begun, and racial conflict was at the
immediately dangerous. The act of Curly forefront of the American consciousness.55
tackling Jud is a justified response to the Daniel Fish radically reimagines the
intensity of the situation and is not an tone of the murder and trial scenes, and
action that should have resulted in Jud’s as a result, he redefines Oklahoma!’s mes-
death. The film version frames Jud’s death saging. Unlike the frantic, rushed tempo
as his own fault, as he instigates a danger- in the film, Fish’s interpretation features
ous situation and is brandishing a weapon eerily slow and deliberate pacing. This de-
while no other characters are armed. The parts from the majority of the play, which
ensuing trial is then viewed as a mere for- embraces a sense of realism that is not
mality, as the community believes, with often seen in other stagings of Oklahoma!.
only Cord Elam weakly protesting, that the Jud entering the stage during the wedding
vilified Jud is deserving of his fate. 50Aunt celebration marks the abandonment of
Eller and the rest of the ensemble push the realism, and this tonal shift draws focus
trial along as quickly as possible saying, to the unique significance that this revival
“C’mon, Andrew, and start the trial. We places on the final scene. While the film
ain’t got but a few minnits,”51 and that they uses Jud’s final moments to emphasize his
need to “get the happy couple on the train villainy, Fish creates pathos for the charac-
for the States”52 in order to celebrate their ter. The rejection he has experienced from
honeymoon. Aunt Eller makes jokes such Laurey specifically and the community as
as, “Well, le’s not break the law. Le’s just a whole has not caused him to return for
bend it a little,”53 and the crowd rowdily revenge but instead to pitifully surrender
echoes her, undermining the severity and himself. Unlike in the film, Jud is portrayed
procedures of the trial. No significance is as a deeply wounded character that is not
placed on the trial in the film, as it takes an active threat to the community in this
place during the falling action and a vast scene. Curly’s lack of emotion tonally con-
majority of the characters do not take it se- trasts with Jud’s tearful plea for his pain
riously. The community’s collective moral to be recognized. Although Jud is moving
compass decides Curly’s fate as opposed to in the direction of the exit in a physically
the letter of the law. The film is not critical non-threatening manner, the hardened
of this disregard for the law, and it glamor- Curly shoots him. The action taken against
izes the lawlessness of the Territory. The Jud is not portrayed as a de-escalation tac-
historical context of 1955 contributes to the tic or self-defense, as in the film. Instead, it
tone of these scenes, as America was eager implicates Curly as a murderer.
to legally condemn the “other” during the With the suggestion that Curly has
50 Zinnemann, Oklahoma!, 2:23:36
54 Joseph Locke, John Wright, The American Yawp (Stanford University Press, 2020) chap. 25, 26, http://www.americanyawp.com/
index.html.
55 Ibid.
103
committed an unwarranted crime, Fish’s feel funny when I tell yer wife you air,”
trial shoulders a new significance, and 59
become chilling threats. Similarly, Judge
the tone of the revival reflects this shift. Andrew Carnes’s tone is elevated from
No longer is the trial simply an obstacle abrasive to threatening in Fish’s revival,
threatening a young couple’s honeymoon; as he barks at Federal Marshal Cord Elam
now it is a moment in time that can disrupt “Oh, shet yer trap. We can give the boy a
the delicate balance of a volatile commu- fair trial without lockin’ him up on your
nity that is just barely maintaining peace weddin’ night!”60 Carnes not only follows
as statehood looms on the horizon.56 The suit with Aunt Eller’s intimidation tactics
social events of 2018 also color the tone but also very clearly baits Curly into saying
and interpretation of these scenes, as 2018 just enough so that he can give the “not
was a year in which powerful men such guilty” verdict. While Carnes appears as
as Judge Brett Kavanaugh and President an impartial figure who is attempting to
Donald Trump evaded the hand of the law maintain order and give Curly — who is
and “othered” immigrants were deported not familiar with the legal system — a fair
by the legal system.57 The bizarrely slow trial in the film, he is very clearly biased in
tempo, extended moments of silence, and Fish’s adaptation. Carnes adopts a different
almost completely static blocking is con- tone of voice when addressing Curly, as if
sistent throughout the trial, and it gives he were sternly speaking to a clueless child,
both the actors and the audience time and and he very deliberately steers the trial as
stillness to understand both the severity of he teaches the younger, more foolish man
the situation and the community’s criminal what to say. Aunt Eller and Judge Carnes
complicacy as they use the law to excuse reveal themselves as corrupt community
murder. Curly abandons his cocky confi- leaders as they manipulate the law to pro-
dence, suddenly appearing immature and tect their community’s hero.
completely lost as he is guided through While the white members of the en-
his trial. Conversely, Aunt Eller emerges semble unwaveringly support Aunt Eller
as a powerful and threatening matriarch, and Judge Carnes’s abuse of power, the
willing to cold-bloodedly manipulate the people of color in the cast express their dis-
law in order to best benefit her and her pleasure with the corruption they identify,
loved ones. Lines that were delivered with departing from the relative unity depicted
glib humor in the film, like “Well, le’s not in the film.61 Most notably, the Federal
break the law. Le’s just bend it a little,” Marshal Cord Elam’s weak protests have
58
and “You’ll feel funny when I tell yer wife deepened to resistant argumentation.
you’re carryin’ on ‘th another womern, When Aunt Eller pushes a wavering Judge
won’t you? [CORD ELAM: I ain’t carryin’ Carnes to hold the trial in her home, where
on ‘th no one.] Mebbe not, but you’ll shore she holds a position of authority, and “say
56 Altercations between the farmer, cowman, and peddler occur throughout the show, but the physical violence is contained until a
brawl takes place during “The Farmer and the Cowman.”
57 History.com Editors, “2018 Events,” History.com, December 6, 2018. https://www.history.com/topics/21st-centu-
ry/2018-events.
59 Ibid.
60 Ibid.
104
“No one speaks act of self-defense, the white ensemble
members respond hurriedly and earnestly
for Jud at this that they saw it happen. However, Mike,
the only person of color asked to testify,
trial, alluding to derisively says, after breaking the rhythm
of responses, “self-defense all right.”66
historical instances Mike ultimately conforms to communal
pressures, but he subtextually communi-
when white men cates that he does not believe that justice
is being served. Ali Hakim remains silent
could kill Black men and continues his journey of assimilation.67
with impunity.” While the community is engrossed in the
trial, Laurey is the only person, Black or
we did it in court,” Cord firmly protests.62 white, that shows any emotion towards
He advocates for proper procedure, say- Jud’s body or grief towards his death. No
ing, “‘T wouldn’t be proper. You have to one speaks for Jud at this trial, alluding to
do it in court. … We can’t do that. That’s historical instances when white men could
breaking the law. … Andrew — I got to kill Black men with impunity.68
protest,” which culminates in Carnes om- The responses of various racial
inously telling him to “shet [his] trap,” and groups towards Jud’s death and Curly’s trial
continuing the trial without the Federal reveals the production’s messaging about
Marshal’s blessing.63 A tense power strug- the law’s relationship to the “other.” His-
gle between the white and Black authority torically, Black people inhabited the Okla-
figures reveals that the voice of the white homa Territory at this point in time, living
man is more powerful, and when Cord in their own self-sufficient communities.69
“feels funny” about the plea of self-defense, Despite their independence, the citizens
Aunt Eller ensures that this skewed power of these settlements still experienced ex-
dynamic remains by threatening to ruin his tensive racism.70 This historical reality is
marriage if he does not comply with their mirrored by the way that people of color
rigged trial.64 She even screams at Cord function within the trial scene. The Black
aggressively, in an act of disrespect for individuals are all pushing for an impartial
him and his authority, “Oh, shet up about trial that follows proper legal procedure,
being a marshal! We ain’t goin’ to let you only to be screamed at or dismissed by the
send the boy to jail on his weddin’ night. white community leaders. As with their
We just ain’t goin’ to let you. So shet up!”65 historical counterparts, the people of color
When Carnes asks for witnesses of Curly’s are simply trying to lead a just life. Their

63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
65 Ibid.
66 Ibid.
67 Ibid.
Oklahoma Territory.”
Oklahoma Territory,” 11-15.
105
“The power struggle between the Black and white
members of the ensemble and the eventual silencing of
the people of color ‘others’ them collectively.”
refusal to assimilate into this community the systematic legal corruption but has
and its morals, like Ali Hakim has, inspires sympathy for the “othered” community to
a violent backlash from the other charac- which she inherently belongs.
ters. Just as the all-Black, well-established Historically, the territory of Okla-
settlements threatened the rest of the his- homa had difficulties embracing the legal
torical Territory, the white characters in reformations that came with the transition
Oklahoma are disturbed by the indepen- to statehood. Hewes describes how the
dence and strength of the people of color. common man, not just the elite, began at-
Even after removing the racialized threat taching himself to the pioneer landscape in
of Jud’s existence, the community still Oklahoma during the 1890s. The territory
experiences unrest. The power struggle soon fell into lawlessness, drunkenness,
between the Black and white members of and violence due to legal ineffectiveness;
the ensemble and the eventual silencing of the analysis of legal disputes reveals that
the people of color “others” them collec- herd and free range laws were unclear,
tively. The community is defined by the and law enforcement was inconsistent
white matriarch — Aunt Eller — and how and biased, specifically when enforcing
she manipulates the law to protect the in- laws concerning prohibition, gambling,
dividuals that conform to her idea of what and violence during the early 1900s.71
the Territory should be. The outsider Jud Law enforcement officials routinely broke
and the individuals who fought for legal these laws and looked the other way when
justice are all racialized characters that are their friends wanted to participate in illicit
ultimately not protected by the law, just as activities.72 Creel further details this legal
the all-Black settlements were not protect- ineffectiveness, as he noted that the new
ed by the law. As a biracial woman, Laurey state struggled to keep a murderer in jail
straddles the racial divide presented in the that had been convicted when Oklahoma
trial scene. She and her husband benefit was a territory.73 Dale claims that during
from the protection of Aunt Eller and the the years 1900-1936, the United States
rest of the community’s support, but she attempted to control popular justice by
understands the injustice that has befallen professionalizing policing and adapting the
Jud. While she is eager for Curly to receive criminal justice procedure to increase the
his “not guilty” verdict, Laurey also spends number of fair trails, but that these federal
the final scenes kneeling next to Jud and and state-level changes had not yet reached
crying over his body. She participates in Oklahoma in the first decade of the centu-
71 Leslie Hewes, “Making a Pioneer Landscape in the Oklahoma Territory,” Geographical Review 86, no. 4 (1996): 588-603.
doi:10.2307/215934.; W. Edward Rolison “Murder in Custer County: A Case Study and Legal Analysis of Herd Law vs. Free Range
in Oklahoma Territory,” Chronicles of Oklahoma 90 no. 3 (2012): 260-285.; Orben J. Casy “Governor Lee Cruce and Law Enforce-
ment in Oklahoma, 1911-1915” Chronicles of Oklahoma 54 no. 4 (1976): 435-460.
71 Casy, “Governor Lee Cruce and Law Enforcement in Oklahoma, 1911-1915,”435-460.
Casy, “Governor Lee Cruce and Law Enforcement in Oklahoma, 1911-1915,”435-460.
73 Von Russel Creel, “Vignette,” Oklahoma City University Law Review 29, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 441-448.
106
ry.74 Before and during its transition from ‘At’s all right, Laurey baby. If you cain’t
territory to state, Oklahoma was a place fergit, jist don’t try to, honey. Oh, lots
composed of often corrupt quasi-legal of things happen to folks. Sickness, er
figures that served the interests of the bein’ pore and hungry even-bein’ old
and afeared to die. That’s the way it is-
immediate community, not the larger legal
cradle to grave. And you can stand it.
system. The manipulation of the law that
They’s one way. You gotta be hearty,
occurs in Oklahoma! is not an invention you got to be. You cain’t deserve the
of Rogers and Hammerstein; rather, it is sweet and tender in life less’n you’re
rooted in a documented historical reality. tough.76
Despite the radically different rep-
In Fish’s revival, a single word is
resentations of the law that Daniel Fish’s
changed, as Aunt Eller says “lots of things
Oklahoma! and the 1955 film portray, there
happen, folks,” and the direct address of the
are very few discrepancies in the scripts,
audience causes the monologue to shoulder
especially in the murder and trial scenes. In
a much stronger significance. No longer is
fact, most of the lines are translated word-
this speech a simple source of comfort for
for-word from the stage to the screen, and
her niece; now it is a proclamation of her
Fish chooses to embrace this text mostly
intense ideology to the larger community.
as it was written. Any mentions of the
Each audience member is directly implicat-
shiveree, the knife, and the fire are cut for
ed as the impassioned Aunt Eller justifies
continuity in Fish’s version, as those events
the legal corruption she will instigate in
and props are not used in his staging. Ad-
ditionally, Jud does not get an opportunity
to kiss Laurey in the film due to staging “The manipulation
limitations, so he says “I didn’t get to kiss
the bride” instead, and there is an addition- of the law
al threat made to Cord Elam made during
the trial scene, as he is told “If we get to be that occurs in
a state we gunna elect ourselves a sheriff.
If you don’t keep your mouth shut, ain’t Oklahoma! is
nobody gonna vote for yuh.”75 The lack of
significant script alterations highlights the
not an invention
weight of the directorial choices made by
Fish. Leaving the text largely untouched,
of Rogers and
he completely reimagined the messaging, Hammerstein;
using a play originally about the strength
of idyllic America to highlight systematic rather, it is rooted
legal flaws that existed at the conception of
the nation and still plague society today. In in a documented
between Jud’s death and Curly’s trial, Aunt
Eller comforts Laurey and tells her, historical reality.”
74 Elizabeth Dale, Criminal Justice in the United States, 1789-1939 (New Histories of American Law. Cambridge ; New York: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2011), 97-121.
75 Zinnemann, Oklahoma!, 2:23:34
107
the following scene and perpetuates the scene, Aunt Eller protects her family and
concept of the mythological “American treats those who she perceives as threats
Dream” — that those who work hard and abusively, effectively expelling them from
weather the storm can achieve whatev- her community. This quote itself, as well as
er they set their minds to in the budding the act of altering it, perfectly signifies the
nation, and those who do not achieve messaging and intentions in this reimag-
success do not deserve it. During the trial ined Oklahoma!. ■
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109
by Joy Zhao
Ryan Serrano is a graduate student in

the Department of Slavic Languages and
Literatures. He is in the final year of his Ph.D.
studies and is finalizing his dissertation.
Serrano is a teaching assistant for “Introduction
to Russian Literature,” which is taught by
Professor Gary Morson, and “Economics
and the Humanities: Understanding Choice,”
which is co-taught by Morson and Economics
Professor Morton Schapiro.
[This interview has been edited for brevity

and clarity.]
110
Tell us about your path from your undergraduate studies to where
you are today.
I was an undergraduate at Princeton University and planned to pursue
mathematics. Before having to declare my major, I realized that, despite my
interest, it wasn’t what I wanted for my future. So, I looked at the classes that I’d
enjoyed most [up] to that point, computer science and Russian literature. After
taking another one in each area, I decided to major in Russian literature and minor
in computer science. After graduating, I took a year off and gained some real-life
experiences by working various jobs. I chose to attend Northwestern University for
graduate school primarily because of its location, reputation, and the faculty I met
during the process.
What drew you to Russian literature?

At the time, I had a hard time accepting that I wasn’t going to be a mathematics
major, something that defined my identity and interests for a long time. In that
emotional time, Russian literature felt important to my growth as a person. There
was a depth and urgency in the way it addressed the big questions of life that I
hadn’t seen elsewhere. I was also lucky enough to take a class with the incredible
Caryl Emerson, whose enthusiasm for the subject was infectious. Since I was
learning Russian as a second language at the time, I thought, “If the English translations
of these books are this incredible, imagine reading them in the original Russian!”
Do you have a favorite Russian novel?

Yes, “Petersburg” by Andrei Bely. I was immediately drawn to it because it didn’t
feel like anything I’d ever read before. It presents a unique take on the city of
Petersburg and incorporates famous works of Russian literature, like Pushkin’s
“Bronze Horseman.” There are also some really weird moments. For example, one
character’s thoughts escape from his brain and become another character. The book
also has an oddly mathematical feel at times, which of course I love. I wrote my junior
paper at Princeton on “Petersburg,” and it was the writing sample I ended up submitting
in my Northwestern graduate school application. I could reread it endlessly.
What does being a graduate student look like?

At each stage, it looks very different. The first and second years are pretty similar
to being an undergraduate. Once the teaching requirement starts, you have to
take on an authoritative role while continuing with your own learning, so that’s
certainly an interesting balance. When you are done with your classes and the
qualifying exam, the challenges become totally different as you start writing your
dissertation, which is a massive project that you work on for years. While writing
the dissertation is your main focus during this time, you also attend conferences,
submit publications, and teach along the way.
111
“With everything that’s been happening
in the world, I really wanted to work
on something that feels important and
relevant to the world at large.”
Was it easy for you to choose the topic for your dissertation?
Not at all! It’s really difficult to choose a topic that you will work on for several
years. I actually started with a very different idea and completely switched gears to
my current topic which focuses more on close reading and literary analysis. It took me
several years to settle on my topic, and I spent another year revising my main thesis.
What is your thesis for your dissertation?

I’m proposing something that I call “prison of performance,” a category of
characters whose self-performance causes moral problems for them. We all take
on roles to some extent when we interact with others. My argument is that there
are people who play roles so often that playing them becomes second nature;
eventually, these roles invade their inner consciousness, and the individual becomes
an audience to their own behavior. They lose control of their own choices, and this
causes moral problems. In the different chapters, I apply my idea to superfluous
men (a literary type), Dostoyevskian characters, and modern social media culture.
Essentially, social media is a constant performance, and I draw conclusions about
potential moral problems that we could fall into. With everything that’s been
happening in the world, I really wanted to work on something that feels important
and relevant to the world at large.
Looking back, what is your proudest moment?

In 2016, I successfully defended my master’s thesis on Valentin Rasputin’s “Farewell
to Matyora” and Venedikt Erofeev’s “Moscow-Petushki.” There were moments
along the way when it felt like I would not ever finish it, but with help from a few
of my professors, I managed to produce something that I think was meaningful. It
was definitely a highlight!
If you could give some advice to graduate students, what would it be?
The biggest thing I would say is to be your own advocate in terms of pursuing
opportunities and getting what you want out of the program. Compared to
undergraduate studies, you have to take a lot more initiative and ownership in
terms of meeting deadlines, getting the most out of your classes, and applying for
fellowships. It’s important to not wait around for opportunities to arrive, but to
look actively for things to deepen your experience.
112
Did you experience any challenges along the way?
Definitely! Every grad student I know has questioned whether they belong in
graduate school. It can be a challenge to stay upbeat and to focus on getting what
you want out of the program. For a while, I had a hard time with the feeling that
I always could be doing more, since there is no rigid division between when you
should work and when you can relax like in a traditional 9-to-5 job. It can be very
stressful! I had to come up with better systems for apportioning my time for the
sake of my own mental health. I also originally had a vision of graduate school
that was kind of naive; I thought it would be a magical place where everyone is
only occupied with intellectual pursuit. But a lot of it is not like that, so I think it’s
important to be realistic and treat it like any other career path.
How has being a teaching assistant (TA) changed your perspective?

Originally, I considered my TA duties as a requirement that I had to check off. But
now, my TA duties have become the most rewarding part of my day. I really enjoy
running discussion sections, interacting with students, and even grading (to an
extent). I didn’t expect to like it as much as I do, and I honestly value it even more
than my own scholarship. After all, only so many people will read my dissertation,
but I can reach so many students and hopefully make a positive impact on their lives.
What are your plans after graduating from graduate school?

Originally, my goal was to become a professor, and I could still see myself teaching
eventually. However, I would not be surprised if I end up outside of academia for
the immediate future. For now, I’m focusing on finishing my dissertation and will
take a few months off afterward to figure out the next step.
What advice would you give to students who are interested in

graduate school?
My first piece of advice would be to take some time off after graduating so you
don’t spend 10+ years straight in school and burn out. Real-life experiences are
important! My second piece of advice would be to make sure you really, really
love your field and aren’t just going to graduate school because it seems like the
“obvious” next step. ■
113
Department ‌of‌ ‌Performance‌ ‌Studies‌
‌and‌ Department of ‌Art‌ ‌History
Faculty Advisers: Joshua Chambers-Letson‌
and Rebecca‌ ‌Zorach‌‌
Knowledge‌ ‌and‌ ‌Wonder’s‌

‌Place,‌ ‌Policy,‌ ‌and‌ ‌Publics:‌
Kerry‌ ‌James‌ ‌Marshall‌ ‌and‌ ‌the‌ ‌Henry‌ ‌E.‌
‌Legler‌ ‌Library’s‌ ‌Percent-for-Art‌ ‌Commission‌ ‌
by Meghan‌ ‌Clare‌ ‌Considine‌
Abstract
Despite its unique position within Kerry James Marshall’s (b. 1955) celebrated
body of work, the public mural Knowledge and Wonder (1995) has received
little scholarly attention to date. It was loaned for exhibition only once and was
featured in just a brief footnote in the artist’s now-definitive 2016 monograph
before it was embroiled in controversy in October 2018, when then-Chica-
go mayor Rahm Emanuel attempted to sell the work as a municipal asset at
auction, resulting in major media coverage and widespread public outcry. By
tracing a longer history of the work, or what theorist Arjun Appadurai would
name the “social life” of Knowledge and Wonder, I argue that this mural is
resoundingly site-specific, responding to the unique space and history of the
Henry E. Legler Regional Library. By elaborating on the history of this library
and its surrounding community of West Garfield Park, collecting and synthe-
sizing oral histories from key participants in the commission, and critically
engaging the logics of the 2016 exhibition Kerry James Marshall: Mastry, I
attempt to fill a lacuna in discourse surrounding the artist’s practice, which is
typically discussed in relation to the scopic regimes of whiteness within West-
ern art history as a disciplinary formation and the complicity of museums in
shaping that canon. Ultimately, I endeavor to demonstrate that Knowledge
and Wonder presents a formal anomaly within Marshall’s broader body of
work, one that can be accounted for by the fact that it was forged within a net-
work of relations for a specific community, not a museum industrial complex
comprised of galleries, collectors, curators, and other institutional actors. This
mural’s eventual confiscation from West Garfield Park marks a particular, and
perhaps irreparable, violence in that it emblematizes the exploitation of Black
labor and extraction of value from Black communities that is, and has been, a
constant feature of American life.
114
“ This mural’s eventual confiscation from West
Garfield Park marks a particular, and perhaps
irreparable, violence in that it emblematizes the
exploitation of Black labor and extraction of value
from Black communities that is, and has been, a
constant feature of American life.
”
Introduction with delicate white spots, and the strong
Seventeen enraptured Black figures plant blue arms of a hero whose fist is limned
themselves upon a checkered precipice. with gold. One of their number rockets off
This intergenerational group, composed to the stars in what appears to be a flying
predominantly of children, stands with saucer (Figure 1).
their backs to the viewer in varying states Unabashedly stylized instances of
of curiosity, shyness, and sheer awe. Heads dripping paint soon make it clear to the
are cocked, hands are held, and arms are viewer that this all-encompassing scene is
crossed. This assembled collective bears indeed just a painting, and the hypothetical
witness to three larger-than-life-sized viewer is whisked back into reality. Ker-
books: A Big Book of Knowledge, The ry James Marshall’s 10- by 23-foot mural
Golden Book of Wonder, and The Won- Knowledge and Wonder was commis-
derful Book of If. These texts are overlaid sioned in 1993 specifically for a public
and intersected with astrological phenom- library on Chicago’s West Side, the Henry
ena: stars, comets, planets, and constel- E. Legler Library in West Garfield Park
lations. Toward the left of the canvas a (hereafter referred to as the Legler). For
terrific solar eclipse casts its beams far and nearly 25 years the mural, installed in 1995,
wide. Creatures of the imagination then activated an entire wall on the library’s
come to the fore, a pink and red dragon second floor (Figure 2), flanking the chil-
S Figure 1. Kerry James Marshall, Knowledge and Wonder, 1995. Acrylic

on paper and canvas, 10 feet by 23 feet. Henry E. Legler Regional Library,
Chicago, Illinois. Photo provided by the City of Chicago for the New York
Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/05/arts/design/ kerry james-
marshall-painting-chicago-proposed-auction.html
115
W Figure 2. Kerry James Marshall, Knowledge
and Wonder, 1995. Acrylic on paper and
canvas,10 feet by 23 feet. Henry E. Legler
Regional Library, Chicago, Illinois. Photo
by Nathan Mason posted to Facebook 4
January 2018.
X Figure 3. Elizabeth Catlett, Floating

Family, 1995. View from entryway. Carved
primavera wood, dimensions unknown.
Henry E. Legler Regional Library, Chicago,
Illinois. Photo by Nathan Mason posted to
Facebook 4 January 2018.
dren’s section and crowning a suspended ing narrative of his practice to emerge:
sculpture by the renowned artist Elizabeth Marshall’s body of work, particularly his
Catlett (b. 1915) entitled Floating Fam- figurative painting, is consistently framed
ily (1995) (Figure 3). Located at the apex as an intervention in redressing the scopic
of a grand marble staircase, the mural, its regimes of whiteness within Western art
monumental scale coupled with its formal history itself, or as the artist himself has
lavishness, lends majesty to the quotidian suggested, “an argument for something
act of a trip to the local library, interpellat- else.”1 Marshall confronts his audiences
ing the presumed viewer, a Black child, in with the Black body’s systemic absence
meaningful ways. from the transhistorical genre scenes made
One can recognize a Marshall canvas familiar by the institutional authority of
from across the room. Throughout his the museum’s white walls, a confrontation
celebrated career, the artist’s use of highly that is made formally legible by the major-
saturated and literally black pigments for ity of figures across his oeuvre who look
the skin of Black subjects, coupled with out beyond the picture plane, locking their
an extensive repertoire of identifiable art eyes with the viewer.
historical signifiers, has allowed a resound- The 17 figures in Knowledge and
1 Kerry James Marshall, “An Argument for Something Else: Dieter Roelstraete in Conversation with Kerry James Marshall, Chica-
go, 2012,” in Kerry James Marshall: Painting and Other Stuff, exh. cat., ed. Nav Haq (Antwerp: Ludion, 2014), 28.
116
Wonder, however, with their backs turned the city’s reputation for public artwork,
to the picture plane, do not bear the bur- and the city’s Department of Cultural Af-
den of such a confrontation. Rather, they fairs and Special Events even declared 2017
invite a viewer who is not necessarily pre- as the “Year of Public Art.”2
sumed to possess any preexisting art his- My research endeavors to broaden the
torical lexicon to congregate and imagine. scope of scholarly and civic engagement
The formal qualities of the mural and the with the mural to relay a longer history
historical factors that ultimately led to its of the object, or what Arjun Appadurai
commission and installation at the Legler, might name its broader “social life.”3 Dom-
I argue, render Knowledge and Wonder inant accounts of Knowledge and Wonder
as singular and resoundingly site-specific emphasize its unfortunate (though others
within the artist’s broader body of work. might argue inevitable) fate: its sudden re-
The artworks at the Legler have removal in October 2018, when then-mayor
ceived scant scholarly attention to date. Rahm Emanuel announced his intention
This is surprising for a city known for its to sell the mural as a municipal asset at
rich and widely touted history of public auction for an estimated $10–$15 million,
art, from Pablo Picasso’s untitled sculp- proposing to use the revenue to restore the
ture in Daley Plaza (1967) (Figure 4), to library’s former status as a regional branch,
Bronzeville’s 1967 Wall of Respect (Figure of which it had been stripped in 1977. This
5), which was created by the Organization rash decision was thankfully reversed due
of Black American Culture (OBAC) and to sustained public outcry and is further
sparked a nationwide community mural detailed in the complete thesis, where I ar-
movement. More contemporary icons such gue it was emblematic of a tendency schol-
as Anish Kapoor’s Cloud Gate (2006), col- ars Lawrence Bobo, James R. Kluegel, and
loquially referred to as “The Bean,” in Mil- Ryan A. Smith have called “laissez-faire
lennium Park (Figure 6) have crystallized racism.”4
W Figure 5. Visual Arts Workshop

of the Organization of Black
American Culture (OBAC), Wall
of Respect, 1967–1971. Paint on
Masonry, dimensions unknown.
43rd Street and Langley Avenue,
Chicago, IL. Photography by Robert
A. Sengstacke: Image courtesy of
LUNA, University of Chicago.
2 One of the many celebrations of the year was the installation of a new large-scale public mural by Marshall on the facade of the
Chicago Cultural Center. Marshall accepted a single dollar as compensation for the project, entitled Rushmore (2017).
3 Arjun Appadurai, ed., The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge, UK: University Press, 1986),
3.
4 Lawrence, Bobo, et. al. “Laissez-Faire Racism: The Crystallization of a Kinder, Gentler, Antiblack Ideology.” In Racial Attitudes in
the 1990s: Continuity and Change, ed. Steven A. Tuch and Jack K. Martin, 17.
117
S Figure 6. Anish Kapoor, Cloud Gate, 2006.
Stainless steel, 33 feet × 42 feet × 66 feet.
Millennium Park, Chicago, IL.
S Figure 4. Pablo Picasso, Untitled (“The story of the commission on the basis of oral
Chicago Picasso”), 1967. Welded steel, 50 histories with key participants, emphasiz-
feet tall. Richard J. Daley Center Plaza,
Chicago, IL.
ing the informal artistic networks within
Black cultural life in Chicago and beyond.
In this project, I map out the space of
the Legler and its surrounding community, A Historic Commission
emphasizing how the realm of the aesthet- The library in question was closed entirely
ic works toward resisting dominant and for nearly two years prior to its rededica-
racist accounts of deprivation and decay. tion on July 31, 1993. In sociologist Eve
Further, I explore how this particular mu- L. Ewing’s recent ethnographic research
ral might fall outside of the logic and as- on Chicago Public School closings under
sumptions of the celebrated 2016 traveling Emanuel’s administration, she introduces
exhibition, Kerry James Marshall: Mastry. the concept of “institutional mourning.”
Ultimately, I endeavor to demonstrate that I apply this hermeneutic to the site of the
Knowledge and Wonder presents a formal Legler library to emphasize the gravity of
anomaly within Marshall’s broader body slowly, then suddenly, losing a community
of work, one that I argue can be accounted gathering space and sanctuary such as a
for by the fact that it was forged within a local library existing under increasingly
network of relations for a specific com- precarious conditions. Defined by Ewing
munity, not a museum industrial complex as the “social and emotional experience
comprised of galleries, collectors, curators, undergone by individuals and communi-
and other institutional actors. This mural’s ties facing the loss of a shared institution
eventual confiscation from West Garfield … especially when those individuals or
Park marks a particular, and perhaps irrep- communities occupy a socially marginal-
arable, violence in that it emblematizes the ized status that amplifies their reliance on
exploitation of Black labor and extraction the institution or its significance in their
of value from Black communities that is lives,”5 this definition resonates with the
and has been a constant feature of Amer- Legler’s precarious history. Although the
ican life. In what follows, I reconstruct the voices of many library users are woefully
5 Eve L. Ewing, Ghosts in the Schoolyard: Racism and School Closings on Chicago’s South Side. (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2018), 127.
118
“In an increasingly son attending to public art is important is
that it allows a rethinking of conventional
privatized public frameworks of value and ownership. For
art historian Rosalyn Deutsche, public
sphere, considering space itself is the corollary of democracy.7
In an increasingly privatized public sphere,
public art and considering public art and its dynamic re-
lationships with site, space, the law, and
its dynamic constituents, offers opportunity to reflect
upon democratic ideals themselves. With
relationships with Catlett and Marshall having works in the
site, space, the law, collections of major museums around
the world, typically flanked by the likes
and constituents, of guards and glass and security alarms,
their unassuming presence in a West Side
offers opportunity public library presents a remarkable story.
In retelling it, depending largely on oral
to reflect upon histories I conducted in the fall of 2019, I
endeavor to position these works not as
democratic ideals the commodities the museum industrial
complex might frame them as, but rath-
themselves.” er instead as a result of sustained, careful
engagement with the site, exemplifying an
obfuscated in contemporaneous news informal but nonetheless rich gift econo-
accounts, we can infer that decreased my between Black artists in Chicago, and
resources, the threat of complete oblitera- indeed beyond.
tion, and an eventual two-year closure not Before delving into the relationships
only came with such institutional mourn- between historical actors, however, it is
ing, but that the artists Marshall and Cat- prudent to outline the municipal policy
lett likely felt an imperative to recognize that enabled this commission. While many
and celebrate the stakes of the reopening details behind the Legler commission have
through their respective commissions. eluded the archive, the fact that the project
A question that might arise after was funded by the city’s Percent-for-Art
considering the history of the Legler is: Ordinance is widely known. In fact, most
How did a mural and a sculpture by two objects in the municipal collection on view
renowned artists find their way into a throughout the Chicago Public Library
so-called “blighted landscape”?6 One rea- system (that are not products of earlier
6 Amanda I. Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago’s West Side (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2005), 41. Seligman highlights the fact that this term is borrowed from the study of ecology, blight representing “a physical
decay with organic qualities … a blighted structure had the potential to infect nearby properties with its decay, thereby threatening
the vitality of the surrounding neighborhood.” The term “blight,” along with ideas such as urban decay, came into mainstream use
in the 1960s, when West Garfield Park’s Black population grew from 15.79% to 96.83% Black, and 83.65% to 2.82% white. The term
is, of course, racially coded. It is perhaps worth additionally noting that the 1999 Northwestern University department of History
PhD dissertation that germinated this book was titled Block by Block: Racing Decay on Chicago’s West Side, 1948–1968, (emphasis
my own). Amid these dominant accounts of decay, cultural production such as Knowledge and Wonder, Compensation, and Float-
ing Family presents an image of flourishing germination.
7 Rosalyn Deutsche, Evictions: Art and Spatial Politics (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1996), 274.
119
Depression-era Works Progress Admin- arts to the greater populace, is undoubtedly
istration cultural projects) arrived by way democratic, there is a degree of condescen-
of this particular ordinance. In 1978 the sion inherent to this formulation. Present,
Chicago City Council unanimously ap- too, is a problematic assumption that the
proved the Percent-for-Art Ordinance, “public” is a homogenous body in sore need
which stipulates that 1.33% of the cost of of moral and intellectual improvement, and
constructing or renovating a public space that the “urban environment” is inherently
or municipal building be reserved for the ugly, as opposed to a landscape reflecting
purchase or commission of artworks.8 One structural inequities that disproportion-
half of these funds must be reserved for ately allocate and concentrate resources,
local artists; Marshall had lived in Chicago including green spaces and cultural institu-
since 1987,9 and although Catlett was by tions, in predominantly white and affluent
this time based in Mexico, she had social downtown areas that generate revenue as
ties to Chicago; she graduated from the tourist destinations.
School of the Art Institute in 1941 and ran When Emanuel proposed the sale of
in the same South Side cultural circles as Marshall’s mural in October 2018, he ignit-
the founder of the DuSable Museum (and ed a deluge of media coverage and public
skilled artist in her own right), Margaret outcry around the mural. None of that
Burroughs.10 attention addressed the piece as a pendant
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, to the as-striking Catlett sculpture, and
federal agencies like the General Services none of the coverage addressed the mech-
Administration, the National Endowment anisms and matrices of relationships that
for the Arts, and states and cities across led to the commission of these works at
the country began advocating for the all. Many people experience public art as a
purchase and commission of public art- permanent feature of the urban landscape.
works,11 which notably followed on the Retelling the story of this commission
heels of countercultural community art and foregrounding the human actors who
movements sparked by the OBAC’s Wall facilitated the Percent-for-Art commis-
of Respect (1967) in Bronzeville on Chi- sion offers insight instead into a dynamic
cago’s South Side. According to Miwon unfolding in time and space marked by a
Kwon, the leading theorist on the problem series of contingencies and relationalities.
of site-specificity in contemporary artistic Downtown Chicago’s Harold Wash-
practice, the aim of this sort of codified ington Library, which happens to be home
public art policy and legislation was to to dozens of public artworks whose origins
“promote the aesthetic edification of the can be traced to the aforementioned or-
American public and to beautify the urban dinance, houses an impressive archive of
environment.”12 While the intent of such Marshall-related ephemera in its collection
an ordinance, to increase exposure to the of “artist files.” In Marshall’s file, one can
8 City Council of the City of Chicago, “City of Chicago Percent-for-Art Ordinance,” accessed 25 April 2020. https://www.chicago.
gov/city/en/depts/dca/auto_generated/public_art_program_ publandreports/new_art_on _pink_line.html
9 Jason Farago, “Kerry James Marshall Paints for Chicago. His Mural Should Stay There,” New York Times, October 5, 2018.
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/05/arts/design/kerry-james-marshall-painting-chicago-proposed-auction.html
10 Bertrand D. Phillips, phone interview with author, December 5, 2019.
11 Miwon Kwon, One Place After Another: Site-Specific Art and Locational Identity (Cambridge and London: The MIT Press,
2002), 56-99.
12 Kwon, One Place After Another, 64.
120
find news clipping after news clipping on sembled acquisitions and organized com-
his exhibitions, his rising fame, and his missions for smaller local branch libraries
impressive grants and fellowships, but predominantly on the South and West
a glaring lack of coverage regarding this Sides, gaining significant curatorial skills,
particular commission at the Legler. My instincts, and contacts in the process. His
mistake was in looking for a front-page final project before taking a job back in
story, when details regarding the Legler Hyde Park at the Renaissance Society was
appeared instead as a passing sentence in a the Legler commission.14
2003 Chicago Magazine article. The cura- After being closed for construction
tor Hamza Walker, who was then working for two years as a result of Bethel New
at the Renaissance Society in Hyde Park, Life (a West Side community organization
was asked to provide some brief commen- still active today)’s dedicated lobbying, the
tary on Marshall’s practice. To contextu- newly renovated Legler reopened in 1993,
alize their relationship, the author of the leaving $20,000 for a Percent-for-Art
profile wrote, “[Walker] helped Marshall commission or acquisition. Walker and
get a commission for a mural in the Legler Marshall were personal friends; Walker
Branch Library on the West Side.”13 When had been a major advocate for the artist
I contacted Walker for an interview, he when he was getting started in Chicago in
expressed surprise that public information the late 1980s, where he had moved after
regarding the commission was so sparse, completing a fellowship at the Studio Mu-
and acute frustration that no one had con- seum in Harlem to be closer to the family
tacted him for commentary in the immedi- of his wife, the actress Cheryl Lynn Bruce.
ate aftermath of the proposed sale. Notably, Walker was also aware, though
At the time of the Legler renovation, the information had not yet been publicly
Walker was only a recent graduate from announced, that Marshall had been selected
the University of Chicago’s undergraduate to participate in the 1997 iterations of both
art history program. He was working his Documenta (X) and the Whitney Bienni-
first post-graduate job as the public art al.15 1997 would also prove to be the year
coordinator in the city’s Public Art Pro- that Marshall was awarded the MacArthur
gram (PAP). While more senior PAP staff Foundation’s “Genius Grant.” The artist
members including curators Mike Lash was on the brink of becoming much busi-
and Steve Mitchell were busy assembling er, and his work was about to become pro-
a public art collection with the significant hibitively expensive for any municipality
Percent-for-Art funds that were generated to think of purchasing or commissioning.
by, as it happens, the new Harold Wash- Evidently resisting the language of market
ington Library which had opened in 1991, speculation, however, Walker instead in-
the young Walker was left to work inde- sisted that he had so staunchly advocated
pendently without significant oversight or for Marshall to secure the commission be-
conventional bureaucratic hurdles. He as- cause he knew that Marshall had “always
13 Mara Tapp, “Visible Man,” Chicago Magazine, October 2003, 136.

14 The city of Chicago has a vast collection of public artworks in its branch libraries, many of which were commissioned or
acquired by Hamza Walker early in his career, which further researchers might consider taking up. Take for example, the photo-
graphs by Carrie Mae Weems at the Chicago Bee Branch Library in Bronzeville. Hamza Walker, personal interview with author,
October 31, 2019.
15 Hamza Walker, personal interview with author, October 31, 2019.
121
“The sustained composition, the view from behind, offers
young viewers an invitation into an assembly, positioning the
library itself as a platform for accessing the very wonder and
knowledge promised by the title of the mural.”
dreamed of illustrating a children’s book.”16 white person on the seven-person panel,

Walker recalls circumventing typical pro- which always comprises two local artists,
tocol by bringing the Project Advisory three community representatives, a repre-
Panel to Marshall’s studio in lieu of a for- sentative from the library, and the public
mal perusal of the city’s designated slide art coordinator. Phillips recalled Skomski’s
registry. He even remembers, with some relentless advocacy for the commission to
fondness, forgoing his position’s designat- be awarded to an unnamed white artist, but
ed neutrality in the deliberation processes, others felt it was imperative that Black art-
for example, by successfully convincing a ists be selected to take on this commission
community member on the Project Advi- for a majority Black community. Skomski’s
sory Panel to reconsider her assumptions inability to recognize the importance of
when she expressed offense toward the such a gesture led to significant tension
artist’s trademark hyper-concentrated ren- among the group,20 and a frustrated Phil-
dering of Black skin tones in his previous lips (who had the bold suggestion to write
paintings.17 to his acquaintance Elizabeth Catlett to
Walker shared that one of the artist gauge her interest in the first place)21 left
representatives on the panel was Bertrand the project dissatisfied, never seeing the
(Bert) D. Phillips. In fact, in Phillips’ ac- completed Legler commission.22
count of the same selection process, Walk- After receiving Phillips’ letter, Catlett
er remained a far more impartial facilitator, paid her own plane fare from Mexico to
instead electing to relay his emphatic pref- come back to Chicago and conduct a site
erence for Marshall in the privacy of Phil- visit at the Legler.23 Clearly inspired by the
lips’ car while hitching rides to and from existing architecture of the building, she
meetings and site visits.18 By Phillips’ recol- elected to suspend her sculpture from the
lection, which he admitted was blurry after ceiling so that those on the second floor
more than 20 years, the most vocal party in balcony near the Marshall mural might ex-
group deliberations was not Walker at all, perience the work from above, and those
but instead the other artist representative entering through the front door or waiting
on the panel, Thomas Skomski.19 This rep- in line at the circulation desk could look up
resentative also happened to be the only at Floating Family. She signed her contract
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
19 Skomski was not willing to provide a comment and did not recall his participation, but Department of Cultural Affairs and Spe-
cial Events records do confirm his participation. Thomas Skomski, email message to the author, January 5, 2020. Daniel Schulman,
email message to the author, February 20, 2020.
21 Ibid., and Hamza Walker (untitled presentation presented at the Department of Art Theory and Practice at Northwestern Uni-
versity “Visiting Artist Talk,” October 31, 2019.
22 Bertrand D. Phillips, email message to the author, December 6, 2019.
23 Ibid.
122
S Figure 7. Kerry James Marshall, Knowledge
and Wonder Preparatory Sketch, 1995. 25 by 58
inches. Photo by Daniel Schulman.
on Jan. 26, 1994, and her sculpture was in-

stalled on May 24, 1995.24
Marshall signed his contract just be- S Figure 8. Kerry James Marshall, detail of
fore Catlett, on Dec. 3, 1993, and complet- Knowledge and Wonder, 1995. Acrylic on
ed the mural onsite at the library in 1995, paper and canvas, 10 feet by 23 feet. Henry E.
Legler Regional Library, Chicago, Illinois. Photo
though archival documents relaying the provided by the City of Chicago for the New York
precise dates of the installation have since Times.
been lost.25 Although he was already pre- library-goer approaching the monumen-
paring for prestigious international exhi- tality of the mural’s all-encompassing scale
bitions, this local commission presented a is invited into a visual field far larger than
major opportunity in and of itself: it was to themselves, absorbed into the same collec-
be Marshall’s largest work in terms of size tive enrapture as the 17 pictured figures.
and scale to date. At 10 by 23 feet, Walker Indeed, the mural’s original accompanying
recalls Knowledge and Wonder being far didactic text notes that Marshall expressed
too wide to fit into Marshall’s cramped stu- a desire that young library patrons might
dio space at 1325 S. Wabash Ave., so it was literally “become a part of [the mural]”, in-
instead to be painted at the library during dicating that an affective embodiment was
open daytime hours.26 Imagining Marshall central to both the initial conception and
completing this mural onsite not only realization of the work.
helps account for notable changes from We might see both Percent-for-Art
the initial study to the final mural, but projects at the Legler as embodying a cat-
strengthens our understanding of the work egory of public art identified by Kwon as
as a site-specific intervention dependent “community based site-specificity,” where-
not only on existing library architecture in “members of a community … will see
and infrastructure, but an interpersonal re- and recognize themselves in the work, not
lationality contingent upon the moment of so much in the sense of being critically im-
bodily encounter, as well. Any adolescent plicated but of being affirmatively pictured
24 Daniel Schulman, email message to the author, February 20, 2020.

25 Ibid.
26 Hamza Walker, personal interview with author, October 31, 2019.
123
or validated.”27 Though Kwon remains the work (Figure 7), housed today in the
ambivalent on the political efficacy of such Department of Cultural Affairs and Special
a gesture,28 this formal choice is undoubt- Events office suites at the Chicago Cultural
edly emotionally charged. On the most ba- Center, we notice that in spite of significant
sic level, Kwon’s formulation is evident in iconographic changes occurring between
that the skin color of the figures mirrors the the sketch and the final mural, this unique
racial demographics of the neighborhood. compositional assembly remains almost
Along with skin color, but far more identical. Admittedly, certain figures in the
subtly, the artist’s decision to render the final mural do tend to be more daring than
figures from behind has significant impli- their predecessors in the sketch. For ex-
cations for how library-goers, particularly ample, the figure in a green top and black
youth, might identify with them. At a pants lying prone on the checkered floor;
nearly larger-than-life scale, the assembly where in the initial sketch each subject
allows for immediate bodily identification stays cautiously far from the edge of the
within and among the ensemble on the precipice, in the final iteration this bold
part of the presumed viewer. Figures seen child precariously and precociously search-
from behind have a longer history within es beyond, teetering over the edge. This
European painting, specifically German figure is not content merely watching from
Romanticism. Sometimes referred to as a distance; the child takes the risk to satiate
the “Rückenfigur,” this not uncommon their curiosity (Figure 8). Additionally, in
trope in Western painting corresponds the initial sketch, the group is flanked by a
to themes including man’s domina- massive pterodactyl, whose almost-fright-
tion-cum-triumph over the natural world, ening scale dwarfs those watching from
as evident in many paintings by the artist below (Figure 9). Painted without contours
Caspar David Friedrich. It is far rarer, or facial features and in Marshall’s charac-
however, to see this compositional strate- teristic jet-black, the silhouette operates
gy mobilized under the sign of Blackness, as a void within a composition rife with
of youth, and of the collective, as Marshall movement and bright color. By choosing
so deftly demonstrates. to eschew the pterodactyl in favor of a
Turning to Marshall’s initial sketch of jetpack-clad child commandeering a flying
S Figure 9. Kerry James Marshall, detail of S Figure 10. Kerry James Marshall, detail of
Knowledge and Wonder Preparatory Sketch, Knowledge and Wonder, 1995. Acrylic on paper
1995. 25 by 58 inches. Photo by Daniel and canvas, 10 feet by 23 feet. Henry E. Legler
Schulman. Regional Library, Chicago, Illinois. Photo provided
by the City of Chicago for the New York Times.

28 Ibid., 95-99.
124
“ In proposing a sale, “[Mayor] Emanuel thereby
articulated market value as the mural’s primary
point of social relevance, rather than as an
opportunity to picture and celebrate the richness
of Black life in a community that has continually
been pathologized.
”
saucer, Marshall offers further agency to side the historical factors and relationships
young library visitors who might too take that led to the Legler commission? From
control of their own fate (Figure 10). Marshall’s personal friendship and private
The myriad evolutions from the carpools with Hamza Walker to Bert Phil-
sketch to the final mural are perhaps the lips’ epistolary relationship with Elizabeth
inevitable result of delights and distractions Catlett, not to mention Catlett covering
accompanying the painting of a large-scale her own plane fare, the commission evi-
mural onsite in a public location, but what dently rested on a collegial network of col-
remains across the iterations relays just as laborations between Black artists and art
much information. I have argued that the workers that operated within and some-
sustained composition, the view from be- times circumvented traditional bureau-
hind, offers young viewers an invitation cratic frameworks. This ethos continued
into an assembly, positioning the library into the installation process with the onsite
itself as a platform for accessing the very completion of the mural and emphasizes
wonder and knowledge promised by the the commission’s place within a quasi-gift
title of the mural. This phenomenological economy.
reading has major implications that situ-
ate the mural outside of the discourse in Labor and Extraction
which Marshall’s work has typically been “ … it’s up on the second floor. Not
framed. What would it mean to consider many people knew it even existed”
that invitation into the community along-
W Figure 11. Blank south-facing

wall, second floor of the Henry
E. Legler Regional Library,
Chicago, IL. Photo taken by the
author on 19 July 2019.
125
—Rahm Emanuel, Oct. 1, 201829 its discursive afterlives present occasion to
The mural was removed suddenly call attention to the ongoing extraction of
and without warning in October 2018; resources from Black communities.
then-mayor Emanuel announced his in- I situate the mural’s ontological posi-
tention to sell the mural as a municipal tion throughout its social history as oscil-
asset at auction for an estimated $10–$15 lating between something like a gift into a
million, and use the revenue to restore the clear commodity not to obfuscate questions
library’s former status as a regional branch, of labor but rather to foreground them, as
of which we know it had been stripped in well as the ways in which that labor becomes
1977.30 A municipality considering selling something immediately exploited in the
their collection is not unheard of, but it is construction of the commodity. Kwon has
nearly always controversial. For example, suggested that “… the drive toward iden-
when the city of Detroit, Michigan filed tificatory unity that propels today’s form of
for bankruptcy in 2013, there were major, community-based site specificity is a desire
though since-halted, plans to sell works to model or enact unalienated collective la-
from the collection of the Detroit Institute bor, predicated on an idealistic assumption
of Arts. These proposals are seen as gravely that artistic labor is itself a special form of
unethical, since these works are purchased unalienated labor, or at least provisionally
or accepted in the public trust. Significant outside of capitalism’s forces.”33 Her choice
outcry quickly prompted Emanuel to re- of the word “provisionally” is telling in this
verse his decision and keep the mural in the case, which reads here as the impending
city’s public art collection; however, as of reality of what Appadurai would name the
spring 2020 when I first wrote this paper, “commodity situation.” For Appadurai, the
the mural remained confiscated, off view commodity situation occurs when an ob-
and in an undisclosed location (Figure 11).31 ject’s exchangeability becomes its “socially
I use the verb “to confiscate” above, with its relevant factor.”34 It would be naïve to pre-
myriad connotations of delinquency and tend the commodity situation did not, to
presumptions of inadequate use or care, an extent, haunt the commission from its
quite intentionally. The etymology of the very inception — recall the young Walker’s
word is telling, as it comes from the Latin astute speculation that it would be impos-
root “fiscus,” or “a money bag,” which over sible for the city to afford Marshall’s work
time became “fisc,” or “the state treasury.”32 after his participation in the Whitney Bi-
Thinking of the mural’s sudden removal as ennial and Documenta X was announced;
a confiscation illuminates the imbalanced to linger, however, in that commodity
power relations and inherent logics of situation is dangerous and exploitative in
value at play. Indeed, the controversy and that it distracts from artistic labor and local
29 Jennifer Smith Richards, “Valuable painting heading to auction to fund West Side library expansion,” Chicago Tribune, 1 Octo-
ber 2018, https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-met-kerry-james-marshall-mural-legler-library-20180929-story.html
30 Mayor’s Press Office, “Mayor Rahm Emanuel and Chicago Public Library Announce the Transformation of Legler Branch into
a Regional Library on the West Side,” news release, 1 October 2018, https://www.chicago.gov/content/dam/city/depts/mayor/
Press%20Room/Press%20Releases/2018/September/100118_Legler.pdf, accessed 1 December 2019.
31 Daniel Schulman, email message to the author, August 8, 2019. The city was held accountable to find funds for the library’s
renovation elsewhere, and the Legler finally reopened as a regional branch, for the first time since 1977, in late December 2020.
32 James Douglas, English Etymology: A Text-Book of Derivatives (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, Tweeddale Court, 1872), 53.
34 Arjun Appadurai, The Social Life of Things, 13.
126
relevance. the commodity situation is a social reality
In October 2018, Mayor Emanuel and mode of relation from which an aes-
asserted the mural as a commodity by sug- thetic object can recover. Will Knowledge
gesting that to auction off a community’s and Wonder remain a surprise for those
cultural heritage, to recognize the mural’s wandering upstairs, interpellating chil-
exchange-value for a staggering sum, dren, filling an entire wall, and responding
would be the only way to afford to restore to Catlett’s Floating Family? Or, will the
the library to its pre-1977 regional status.35 work return encased in glass, surveilled
Emanuel thereby articulated market value and policed, and in a prime position for art
as the mural’s primary point of social rel- world aficionados to come take their pic-
evance, rather than as an opportunity to ture with the now widely-publicized work,
picture and celebrate the richness of Black leaving before they have to interact with
life in a community that has continually community members?
been pathologized. The mural was re- Library users are crafting their own
turned upon the library’s reopening in De- responses. Children are tacking up their
cember 2020 to a community that has since own assembly of Black Lives Matter-in-
borne disproportionate suffering in the spired graphic works, which are installed
ravaging wake of the COVID-19 pandem- directly parallel to the big, now-empty,
ic. The question now becomes whether white wall (Figure 12). The vastness of that
south-facing wall across from this array of
colorful artwork is staggering, but they
speak to each other in meaningful ways.
Despite the historic and ongoing violence
of white supremacy in the United States,
which Marshall deftly tackles in his work
for both museums and public libraries,
Marshall ardently demonstrates the rich
plurality of Black life in America, asking
us to reconsider not only entrenched his-
torical narratives and assumptions, but the
possibilities for the future. ■
S Figure 12. Black Lives Matter youth artworks.

Second floor of the Henry E. Legler Regional
Library, Chicago, IL. Photo taken by the author
on 19 July 2019.
35 Ibid.
127
Bibliography
Interviews “City of Chicago Percent-for-Art Or- James Marshall, Chicago 2012,” in

Hamza Walker, interview with author, dinance, 1978.” City Council of the Kerry James Marshall: Painting and
31 October 2019, Evanston, IL. City of Chicago. Accessed April 25, Other Stuff, ed. Nav Haq (Antwerp:
Daniel Schulman, personal email 2020. https://www.chicago.gov/city/ Ludion, 2014), 28.
communication, 8 August 2019- 25 en/depts/dca/auto_generated/pub- Mayor’s Press Office. “Mayor Rahm
March 2020. lic_art_program_publandreports/ Emanuel and Chicago Public Library
Bertrand Philips, phone interview and new_art_on_pink_line.html. Announce the Transformation
email communication with author, Deutsche, Rosalyn. Evictions: Art and of Legler Branch into a Regional
5-6 December 2019. Spatial Politics. Cambridge and Library on the West Side.” October
Thomas Skomski, personal email com- London: The MIT Press,1996. 1, 2018. https://www.chicago.gov/
munication, 5 January 2020. Douglas, James. English Etymology: A content/dam/city/depts/mayor/
Text-Book of Derivatives. Edin- Press%20Room/Press%20Releas-
burgh: Oliver and Boyd,Tweeddale es/2018/September/100118_Legler.
Lectures Court, 1872. pdf
Walker, Hamza “Visiting Artist Talk,” Ewing, Eve L. Ghosts in the Schoolyard: Richards, Jennifer Smith. “Valuable
Northwestern University Depart- Racism and School Closings on painting heading to auction to fund
ment of Art Theory and Chicago’s South Side. Chicago, IL: West Side library
Practice 31 October 2019. University of Chicago Press, 2018. expansion.” Chicago Tribune, 1 October
Farago, Jason. “Kerry James Marshall 2018. https://www.chicagotribune.
Published Sources Paints for Chicago. His Mural Should com/news/ctmet-kerry-james-mar-
Appadurai, Arjun, ed. The Social Life Stay There.” New York Times, Oc- shall-mural-legler-library-
of Things: Commodities in Cultural tober 5, 2018. https://www.nytimes. 20180929-story.html
Perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cam- com/2018/10/05/arts/design/ Seligman, Amanda I. Block by Block:
bridge University Press, 1986. kerryjames-marshall-painting-chica- Neighborhoods and Public Policy on
Bobo, Lawrence, James R. Kluegel, and go-proposed-auction.html Chicago’s West Side. University of
Ryan A. Smith. “Laissez-Faire Rac- Kwon, Miwon. One Place After Anoth- Chicago Press, 2005.
ism: The Crystallization of a Kinder, er: Site-Specific Art and Locational ———. “Block by Block: Racing Decay on
Gentler, Antiback Ideology.” In Identity. Cambridge: The MIT Press, Chicago’s West Side, 1948–1968.”
Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Conti- 2004. PhD diss., Northwestern University,
nuity and Change, edited by Steven Marshall, Kerry James. “An Argument 1999.
A. Tuch and Jack K. Martin, 15-42. for Something Else: Dieter Roel- Tapp, Mara. “Visible Man.” Chicago
Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997. straete in Conversation with Kerry Magazine. October 2003, 136.
128
Department of American Studies
Faculty Adviser: Mark Sheldon
A Reckoning with
Medicine’s Past
by Meilynn Shi
As the fear of contagion pushed us apart, able”2 to private hospitals — patients who
the thread of something else — justice, could not pay or who had the “wrong”3
humanity, frustration — pulled us back color of skin — were often “dumped”4 at
together, tugging at our consciences, County’s steps, bifurcating the delivery of
driving us into the streets, and sharpening care along racial divides. Hospitals in Chi-
the demand for transformation. The racial cago were not as segregated as they were in
reckoning of 2020 fired up a radical mo- the South, but the color line still ran deep.
mentum to break down old walls and build County was once the premier place
up new visions. However, in medicine, as for residency, where some of the best
elsewhere, little will change if there isn’t physicians in the country trained. In
first a reckoning with why so little has 1945, about one in every five physicians
changed in the past. While medicine may in the United States received some type
sit atop a high tower of prestige, in its of training at County.5 But as more phy-
shadow is a long and ongoing history of sicians began pursuing specialties and em-
injustice. ployment at private practices that offered
Forty-five years ago in Chicago, in- higher salaries, better working conditions,
terns and residents at the Cook County and greater autonomy, County fell into a
Hospital went on strike for 18 days, fighting chronic state of neglect.
to fix a lack of baseline equipment and ser- Frustrated with administrative dis-
vices for patients.1 As Chicago’s sole public regard, house staff at County mobilized in
hospital, County was the only hospital in the late ’60s and formed the House Staff
the city that took in all patients who came Association (HSA) in 1974, leveraging the
to its doors. Patients who were “undesir- tools of union organizing to claim a voice
1 Devinatz, V. G. (1996). “Never before have M.D.’s done so much for their patients”: The 1975 strike by the Cook County Hospital
House Staff Association against the Cook County Hospital. Journal of Collective Negotiations in the Public Sector, 25(2), 117-136.
2 Cook County Hospital perpetuates dual health system. (1970, September/October). The Struggle, 6. Northwestern University
Archives, Evanston, IL, United States.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 Illinois Legislative Investigating Commission. (1979). Cook County Health Hospitals Governing Commission (Final Report).
129
in hospital decision-making. The HSA
set forth a list of demands, all but two of
“In medicine, as
which — an 80-hour workweek limit and
a pay increase to make salaries comparable
elsewhere, little
with those at public hospitals in New York
and Los Angeles — focused on directly
will change if
improving patient care.6 The HSA was there isn’t first a
demanding, as one physician said, “just the
mechanical nuts and bolts of things that reckoning with
you need to keep people alive,”7 including
fully equipped crash carts so that physicians why so little has
wouldn’t be delayed in administering CPR,
24-hour X-ray and EKG services so that
changed in the
patients wouldn’t have to wait seven days
to get a routine chest X-ray, and Spanish
past.”
and Polish translators so that patients with reers, walked out, formed a picket line, and
life-threatening conditions wouldn’t mis- began a strike.11
takenly be turned away.8 Some of the other For the next 18 days, talks continued
demands were as simple as bedside curtains to fail, and the HSA went on to lead one
to provide privacy, bedside lamps to see of the longest physician strikes in U.S.
patients at night without needing to light history. Many criticized the physicians for
up the full ward, and bedside juice boxes degrading the medical profession, some
for patients with diabetes.9 framed the strike as an attempt by radical
But despite more than five months physicians to take over the hospital,12 and
and 20 rounds of contract negotiations, some even condemned the strike as an
hospital administration would not budge. attempt by white doctors to seize control
In an open letter to the community, the from a Black administrator by withhold-
HSA explained that it was being “forced to ing health services from a largely Black
strike by an administration who is telling patient population.13, 14 But such backlash
us that these things are none of our busi- was more rhetoric than anything else.
ness.”10 And at 6:30 a.m. on Oct. 27, 1975, The HSA had rallied a coalition of allies,
a group of interns and residents, clad in from senior physicians to trade unions to
white coats, stethoscopes, and strike but- community leaders to patients themselves,
tons, willing to risk their professional ca- who postponed their appointments and
6 Devinatz, “Never before have M.D.’s.”

7 Hoffman, J. (Producer). (1975). HSA Strike 1975. [Film]. Kartemquin Films.
8 Bonnell, M., Fischer, T., & Moore, D. (1975, November 12). Studs Terkel interviews three Cook County Hospital doctors about their
1975 strike [Interview]. Studs Terkel Radio Archive; The Chicago History Museum. https://studsterkel.wfmt.com/programs/studs-
terkel-interviews-three-cook-county-hospital-doctors-about-their-1975-strike
9 Ibid.
10 House Staff Association. (1975, October 26). Physicians on Strike [Open letter to Communities Served by Cook County Hospital].
Quentin Young Papers (Box 23, Folder 6), Northwestern University Archives, Evanston, IL, United States.
12 Young, Q. (2013). Everybody in, nobody out: Memoirs of a rebel without a pause. Copernicus Healthcare.
13 Jarrett, V. (1975, November 9). Under the knife at County Hospital. Chicago Tribune. ProQuest Historical Newspapers.
14 County Hospital Crisis. (1975, October 28). Chicago Defender. ProQuest Historical Newspapers.
130
“Since the ’60s, During the summer of 2020, in the days
following the deaths of George Floyd, Ah-
medical students maud Arbery, Breonna Taylor, Sean Reed,
Tony McDade, Rayshard Brooks, and too
have been many more, medical students rallied along-
side Black Lives Matter, urging for a re-ex-
grappling with how amination of the medical curriculum, the
construction of race, and the physician’s
to remain ’radicals voice.
But it was not enough in the ’60s and
in the professions.’” ’70s, and it was not enough in 2020. As
physicians scramble to contain transmis-
stayed home during the strike.15,16 What
sion of SARS-CoV-2, especially in public
drove the physicians to go on strike was a
hospitals and communities of color, the
professional duty to patients, to healthcare
medical institution is once again facing the
equity, and to the Hippocratic Oath.
cracks in its reflection. Medicine has recog-
Yet, not much changed after the
nized that it must do better, but it has nev-
strike. It was one of many job actions that
er fully reckoned with its own institutional
disrupted hospitals across the nation in the
complicity. The profession’s privilege and
’70s, and it stood at the center of tensions
prestige have allowed it to look past its
arising from an agitated labor movement, a
history of abuses and shift the focus to-
changing medical profession, and the shad-
ward remaining “apolitical.” But medicine
ow of the civil rights movement. But it be-
has never been apolitical — not since the
came another instance of how an attempt
founding of the American Medical Associ-
at reform galvanized momentum, seemed
ation and organized medicine, not since the
on course to reimagine social structures,
first attempt to pass a national health care
but then quietly sputtered out.
bill in the early 1900s, not since the rise of
However, physicians have never
third-party payers, pharmaceutical corpo-
stopped fighting. Since the ’60s, medical
rations, and managed care organizations.
students have been grappling with how to
Rather, the medical profession can
remain “radicals in the professions,”17 how
provide an anchor in modern civil rights
to not lose sight of what happens on the
movements. As a profession that catches
ground from the high office windows of
the victims of our deepest social and po-
the M.D. With the Medical Committee
litical struggles, it can lead the vanguard to
for Human Rights, Student Health Orga-
create change not only within but beyond
nizations, Physicians for a National Health
its white walls. It requires change at the
Program, White Coats for Black Lives, and
top, but it must begin among physicians
more, physicians have written their own
themselves, in the ways that physicians un-
history of rising up against the status quo
derstand people, in the ways that hospitals
and taking the gavel into their own hands
serve communities, in the ways that the
to try to bend the arc towards justice.
profession carries out its codes, and in the
16 Bonnell, Fischer, & Moore, Studs Terkel interviews.
17 Fein, O., & Fein, C. (1967, July). Notes on Alternatives Facing the Radical in Medicine. Quentin Young Papers (Box 46), Northwest-
ern University Archives, Evanston, IL, United States.
131
ways that physicians break down the walls century of disinvestment as a public hospi-
built to isolate medicine from the messy tal, money is now pouring into the build-
world outside. ing. But behind the façade of marble and
In the years following the 1975 strike terracotta is a history of some of the worst
at County, the HSA never stopped fighting abuses of the medical institution. Until the
for its patients. If it weren’t for its efforts, medical profession dismantles the façade
County most likely would have been shut- and looks deeper into how and why it got
tered and repurposed. Instead, in 1994, Il- to where it is, its shadow of injustice and
linois approved the construction of a new complicity will only continue to grow.
county hospital, and in 2002, the John H.
Stroger, Jr. Hospital opened its doors.18 Acknowledgements
Today, the old County building remains as The author would like to thank Dr. Mark
a historical landmark, and last year, after Sheldon for his guidance on the research
more than $140 million of renovations, it and writing. ■
reopened as a Hyatt Place Hotel.19 After a
18 Raffensperger, J. (Ed.). (1997). The Old Lady on Harrison Street: Cook County Hospital, 1833-1995. Peter Lang.
19 Kamin, B. (2020, May 22). An exclusive look at the reborn Cook County Hospital: Once facing the wrecking ball, the West
Side landmark is about to reemerge, beautifully remade. Chicago Tribune. https://www.chicagotribune.com/columns/blair-kamin/
ct-biz-old-cook-county-hospital-kamin-20200522-rspawd7gbbcwtd5fh4at5r4rja-story.html
Bibliography
Primary Sources mark is about to reemerge, beautifully “The Residents and Internes Associ-
Bonnell, Mark, Tessa Fischer, and David remade.” Chicago Tribune. May 22, 2020. ation of Cook County Hospital.”
Moore. “Studs Terkel Interviews https://www.chicagotribune.com/col- May 17, 1971. Box 23, folder 3,
Three Cook County Hospital Doc- umns/blair-kamin/ct-biz-old-cook-coun- Quentin Young Papers, North-
tors About Their 1975 Strike.” By ty-hospital-kamin-20200522-rspawd7gb- western University Archives.
Studs Terkel. WFMT, November 12, bcwtd5fh4at5r4rja-story.html “Treatment of Prisoners.” Box 46,
1975. Studs Terkel Radio Archive. The Struggle. “Cook County Hospital Per- folder 2, Quentin Young Papers,
https://studsterkel.wfmt.com/ petuates Dual Health System.” Sep- Northwestern University
programs/studs-terkel-interviews- tember/October 1970. Northwestern Archives.
three-cook-county-hospital-doctors- University McCormick Library of Young, Quentin. Everybody In, Nobody
about-their-1975-strike. Special Collections. Out: Memoirs of a Rebel without a
Chicago Defender. “County Hospital Young, Quentin. Papers. Northwestern Pause. Chicago: Copernicus Health-
Crisis.” October 28, 1975. ProQuest University Archives. care, 2013.
Historical Newspapers: Chicago “Cook County Hospital Community
Defender. Education Project.” 1975. Box Secondary Sources
Hoffman, Judy, prod. HSA Strike 1975. 23, folder 6, Quentin Young Devinatz, Victor G. “‘Never Before
Chicago: Kartemquin Films, 1975. Papers, Northwestern University Have M.D.’s Done So Much for
https://docuseek2.com/kq-hsa75. Archives. Their Patients’: The 1975 Strike by
Illinois Legislative Investigating Com- Fein, Ollie and Charlotte Fein. the Cook County Hospital House
mission. Cook County Health Hospitals “Notes on Alternatives Facing Staff Association against the Cook
Governing Commission (Final Report). the Radical in Medicine.” July County Hospital.” Journal of Collective
Chicago: Illinois Legislative Investi- 1967. Box 46, Quentin Young Negotiations in the Public Sector 25, no.
gating Commission, 1979. Papers, Northwestern University 2 (1996): 117-36.
Jarrett, Vernon. “Under the Knife at Archives. Raffensperger, John, ed. The Old Lady on
County Hospital.” Chicago Tribune, “Re: Physicians on Strike, An Open Harrison Street: Cook County Hospital,
November 9, 1975. ProQuest Histor- Letter to Communities Served 1833-1995. New York: Peter Lang,
ical Newspapers: Chicago Tribune. by Cook County Hospital.” 1975. 1997.
Kamin, Blair. “An exclusive look at the re- Box 23, folder 6, Quentin Young
born Cook County Hospital: Once facing Papers, Northwestern University
the wrecking ball, the West Side land- Archives.
132
THE CORONADATA U.S.
PROJECT
Tracking Pandemic Sociology
By Prerita Pandya and Grace Lee
C
oronaData U.S. is a nationally representative longitudinal
survey that tracks U.S. public opinions, behaviors, and at-
titudes related to the COVID-19 pandemic. The principal
investigator of the project, Beth Redbird, discussed the mo-
tivations and implications of her research with the Journal.
FEATURE 133
“If you want to demic, especially going into the future.
“If you want to not just solve this pan-
not just solve this demic but help with future pandemics, you
need to understand not just how diseases
pandemic but and viruses work, but also how people
help with future work,” she emphasized.
Once the initial survey was finalized
pandemics, you need in March 2020, invitations to participate
in the survey were distributed to random-
to understand not ly selected addresses across the country.
just how diseases and Participants who accepted the invitation
were sent the survey and paid for their
viruses work, but also participation.
Redbird explained that participants
how people work.” were chosen in this manner to ensure that
the survey results would be nationally rep-
Sociology Professor and Principal resentative. “It’s not the kind of thing peo-
Investigator of CoronaData U.S. Beth ple select into. We’re trying to get people
Redbird remembers when the COVID-19 from all walks of life — all political orienta-
pandemic first hit the United States in ear- tions, all social statuses, all income groups,
ly 2020. She, like many other Americans, [both] rural areas and urban areas.”
wondered how this virus would impact her As of February 2021, Redbird and her
life. As she began to realize how quickly team have a panel of about 8,000 partici-
and drastically the virus was changing the pants to whom the survey is regularly sent
lives of many across the country, Redbird in order to track changes in opinion over
decided to use her expertise as a survey time. Since the first rollout of the survey,
researcher to investigate the sociological Redbird and her team have been constant-
effects of the pandemic. ly updating, editing, and adding questions
With a team of other Northwestern to reflect the changing social and political
University researchers, Redbird assembled landscape of the country. For example,
a survey aimed to capture the sentiments of questions about face masks were not ini-
the nation. She explained that the goal of the tially included in the survey.
CoronaData U.S. project is “to preserve as “In March, states had started with
much data as possible for future researchers.” stay-at-home orders, and everybody was
Redbird understands the pandemic being told, ‘Don’t wear masks. Preserve
as not only a public health issue, but also a those for healthcare workers,’” Redbird
social issue — one that greatly affects peo- explained. “So we didn’t ask any mask
ple’s behaviors, opinions, and social inter- questions, and it wasn’t until the summer,
actions. “How the pandemic spreads, how when masks became a ‘thing,’ that we start-
prevalent it is, and how it works is in part ed to adjust the survey to capture that.”
about how we treat each other, what we do, Currently, the team is working on
how we behave, and how we interact.” the fourth wave of surveys and plans to
Redbird believes it is crucial for people include questions regarding newer aspects
to have this understanding about the pan- of the pandemic and current life, such as
134 FEATURE
“Typically during disasters,
there’s this kind of a
solidarity effect. We didn’t
really see that in the
pandemic, so the question is,
did we not see that because
the pandemic is so long?”
vaccination and the Biden administration’s time of upheaval, people seemed to drift
policies. They plan to continue conducting apart and away from the idea of communi-
the survey every six months until about ty, possibly due to the isolationist nature of
2022 in the hopes of capturing how life pandemic public health measures.
returns to normal. As life gradually returns to normal,
Of all the trends Redbird has observed people will likely begin to come together
through the survey, the lack of solidarity in the in the aftermath of this shared experience
country was something she did not expect. that has altered every aspect of our lives.
“Typically during disasters, there’s As the isolation of the pandemic becomes a
this kind of a solidarity effect,” she said. thing of the past, the ideals of community
“We didn’t really see that in the pandemic, and interaction that we have lost can be
so the question is, did we not see that be- rebuilt, and CoronaData U.S. will be here
cause the pandemic is so long?” to document it. ■
Rather than coming together in this
To learn more about CoronaData U.S., visit the project website at https://coronadata.us/.
FEATURE 135
Faculty Adviser: Jeannette Colyvas
Designing Equity:
Stakeholders’ Perceptions of an
Equity Initiative in a California
School District
by Riley Ceperich
Introduction 80% or fewer teachers have obtained their
Once championed as the great equalizer, teaching certification.3 Further, Black
the American education system has now students are more likely to attend schools
been exposed by researchers for the with fewer resources and suffer more
systematic role it plays in reinforcing disciplinary action than white students due
inequality. It is well documented that large to teachers’ and administrators’ underlying
achievement gaps continue to exist be- biases.4
tween racial groups as a result of structural In order to combat these inequities,
inequalities. In 2015, the average score of public schools have been implementing
Black students on the National Assessment reforms for decades. Yet, despite major
of Educational Progress was 26 points efforts, large gaps persist, and some edu-
lower than that of white students.1 Many cational leaders even assert that certain re-
factors explain this gap. For example, 71% forms are “making things worse.”5 There-
of white students attend schools that offer fore, the solution to educational inequity
the full complement of courses that the remains unclear.
United States Department of Education In order to narrow achievement
deems necessary to be college ready, com- gaps, agents of change must think criti-
pared to only 57% of Black students.2 Black cally about why equity reforms have failed
students are also more than twice as likely so consistently. My thesis aims to answer
to attend schools with higher concentra- this question by analyzing teacher and
tions of first-year teachers and are four administrator perceptions of an equity
times more likely to attend schools where initiative, SPARK,6 with the goal of under-
1 “K-12 Disparity Facts and Statistics,” UNCF, UNCF, 2019.

2 Rhonda Tsoi-A-Fatt Bryant, “College Preparation for African American Students: Gaps in the High School Educational Experi-
ence,” CLASP, CLASP, 2015.
3 UNCF.
4 Ibid.
5 Valerie Strauss, “Perspective | Yes, Teacher-Preparation Programs Need to Be Fixed - but More than 350 Education Leaders Say
Reforms Are ‘Making Things Worse,’” The Washington Post, WP Company, 2019.
6 “SPARK” is a pseudonym I am using to maintain the privacy of subjects. All names of schools and individuals have also been
136
“In order to narrow gaps between racial groups and identifies
the social and institutional factors that
achievement gaps, contribute to these gaps. Considerable
literature also highlights the ways that
agents of change school organization affects students and
teachers broadly, as well as the ways in
must think critically which individuals from different levels of
school organization perceive school policy
about why equity and processes. The overlap of these two
fields has received decidedly less attention.
reforms have failed In particular, no studies have addressed
so consistently.” the way that individuals from different
school organizational levels perceive equi-
ty-oriented reforms. My study aims to fill
standing how those perceptions might be
this gap in the literature.
related to the reform’s strengths or pitfalls.
Many school districts have imple-
My central research question is: How do
mented initiatives to combat educational
stakeholders perceive equity-oriented re-
inequity. Initiatives include creating teams
forms? I studied the interview transcripts
of teachers to review student performance
of teachers, principals, and district leaders
data by racial group, changing how the
in two historically underserved elementary
curriculum addresses race and power dy-
schools where a large-scale equity reform
namics, and training educators on equity
was implemented.
pedagogy, particularly outlining and dis-
I investigated variation between
couraging them from falling into “equity
organizational levels in order to better
traps” such as “color-blindness.” It is fairly
understand both how different types of
well-documented that these diversity ini-
stakeholders perceive reforms and whether
tiatives have high rates of failure.7 Re-
school organizational level maps on to dif-
searchers have attempted to explain this.
ferences in perceptions. My findings shed
Theorized reasons for failure include a lack
light on the problems with current equity
of specialized support to marginalized pop-
reforms and provide recommendations for
ulations8 and teachers’ unawareness of the
future initiatives.
existence of equity initiatives.9
Literature Review Research exists about teachers’ per-
ceptions of testing structures, sex equity
Sociologists have studied both educational
in schools, and perceptions of students
inequity and school organization at length.
of different races than them, but limited
Much of the literature surrounding edu-
research explores teachers’ and adminis-
cational inequity focuses on achievement
pseudonymized for this reason.

7 Adrianna Kezar et al., “Examining Organizational Contextual Features That Affect Implementation of Equity Initiatives,” The
Journal of Higher Education, The Ohio State University Press, 2008.
8 Sabrina Zirkel, “The Influence of Multicultural Educational Practices on Student Outcomes and Intergroup Relations,” Teachers
College Record, Teachers College, 2007.
9 Kezar et al.
137
trators’ perceptions of school reform.10,11,12
There is also well-documented research “There is a lack
about the differences between teacher and
administrator perceptions of district policy
of research
and processes.13,14 However, there is a lack
of research comparing teacher and admin-
comparing teacher
istrator perceptions of school reform and, in and administrator
particular, equity reform.
My project aims to bridge this gap perceptions of
by studying stakeholders’ perceptions of
an equity-oriented reform. By “stakehold- school reform and,
ers,” I refer to those who hold a stake in
the school. Edward Freeman’s Stakeholder in particular,
Theory explains that organizations should
try to consider all of the goals and mind-
equity reform.”
sets of those involved in the organization reform. I draw on James P. Spillane’s idea
in order to enhance its success.15 I limit my of sense-making to underscore the com-
definition of stakeholders to teachers, prin- plexity of these perceptions and therefore
cipals, and district leaders because those the depth of information they could con-
are the interviews to which I had access. I ceivably offer.16 By “equity-oriented re-
lacked access to the interviews of students form,” I refer to an initiative, which I will
and parents who I would otherwise include henceforth call SPARK,17 implemented in
under my definition of stakeholders, and 2018 in a California school district with the
I recommend that their perceptions be stated goal of increasing the educational
studied in future research. Yet, excluding outcomes for Black students. Further detail
students and parents does allow me to fo- about this initiative is located in the meth-
cus on differences in perceptions between odologies section.
organization levels in education. Hypothesis: Stakeholders’ perceptions
I plan to examine the ways that stake- of the design of SPARK vary between organi-
holders perceive a specific equity reform. zational levels.
By “perceive,” I refer to stakeholders’ Past research indicates that teachers,
opinions of the reform — how they de- principals, and district leaders have fairly
scribe the reform and what they identify different opinions about school processes
as the strengths and weaknesses of the which are guided by norms and struc-
10 Emily R. Lai and Kris Waltman, “Test Preparation: Examining Teacher Perceptions and Practices,” Educational Measurement:
Issues and Practice, vol. 27, no. 2, 2008, pp. 28–45.
11 Patricia S. Griffin, “Teachers’ Perceptions of and Responses to Sex Equity Problems in a Middle School Physical Education Pro-
gram,” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, vol. 56, no. 2, 1985, pp. 103–110.
12 Julie Landsman and Chance W. Lewis. White Teachers, Diverse Classrooms: Creating Inclusive Schools, Building on Students’ Diversity,
and Providing True Educational Equity, Stylus Pub, 2011.
13 Nanette M. Keiser and Jianping Shen, “Principals’ and Teachers’ Perceptions of Teacher Empowerment,” Journal of Leadership
Studies, vol. 7, no. 3, 2000, pp. 115–121.
14 Anne Spidell Rusher et al. “Belief Systems of Early Childhood Teachers and Their Principals Regarding Early Childhood Educa-
tion,” Early Childhood Research Quarterly, vol. 7, no. 2, 1992, pp. 277–296.
15 R. Edward Freeman, “Divergent Stakeholder Theory,” Academy of Management Review, vol. 24, no. 2, 1999, pp. 233–236.
16 James P. Spillane et al., “Policy Implementation and Cognition: Reframing and Refocusing Implementation Research,” Review of
Educational Research, vol. 72, no. 3, 2002, pp. 387–431.
17 See note 6.
138
“ Teachers explained that they would like more
strategies or examples of culturally relevant
pedagogy and ‘more trainings on just how
to make culturally relevant teaching in
differentiating instruction.’
tures within their organization level.18,19 Methodologies
”
I therefore expected that my analysis of To answer my research question about the
the interviews would uncover differences way that stakeholders perceive equity-ori-
in opinion between organizational levels ented reforms, I conducted an exploratory
about the design of SPARK. case study23,24 of an equity initiative,
Using the Consortium for Policy SPARK, at two elementary schools with
Research in Education’s framework for the goal of exploring diversity in per-
studying comprehensive school reform ceptions of an equity reform. I employed
programs, I posited that stakeholders’ per- qualitative methods at the individual
ceptions of SPARK would fall into three unit of analysis.25 My analysis examines
main categories: design, implementation, individuals across the classroom and
and efficacy.20 For this condensed version school within a single district. The study
of my thesis, I focused solely on stakehold- was cross-sectional26 in that it examined
ers’ perceptions of the design of SPARK. stakeholders’ perceptions of SPARK at
By “design,” I refer to an improvement one point in time rather than exploring
process undergone by a school based on a how their perceptions changed over time.
strategic plan which may include curricu- Interviews allowed me to dive deeper into
lar or instructional changes to the existing each individual’s perceptions of the ini-
organization and offers research-based tiatives, whereas survey data would have
evidence for the strategies and a guide for only offered a cursory glance of percep-
how to implement them.21 The Consor- tions and inhibited me from delving into
tium explains that designs must include the complexities in opinions that might
both an effective instructional and im- uncover greater variation in stakeholders’
plementation strategy to effect change in perceptions.27
learning or instruction.22 I examined the interview transcripts
of stakeholders from two elementary
18 Nanette M. Keiser and Jianping Shen, “Principals’ and Teachers’ Perceptions of Teacher Empowerment,” Journal of Leadership
Studies, vol. 7, no. 3, 2000, pp. 115–121.
19 Anne Spidell Rusher et al., “Belief Systems of Early Childhood Teachers and Their Principals Regarding Early Childhood Educa-
tion,” Early Childhood Research Quarterly, vol. 7, no. 2, 1992, pp. 277–296.
20 Rowan, Brian, et al., “School Improvement by Design: Lessons From a Study of Comprehensive School Reform Programs,”
2009.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid.
23 Earl R. Babbie, The Practice of Social Research, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2013.
24 Charles C. Ragin and Lisa M. Amoroso, Constructing Social Research: the Unity and Diversity of Method, SAGE, 2019.
25 Babbie.
26 Ibid.
27 Robert S. Weiss, Learning from Strangers: the Art and Method of Qualitative Interview Studies, Free Press, 1995.
139
schools in one California school district. I ing Paul Robeson and Davis, with the goal
refer to the school district as “S District.” I of exploring curriculum coherence within
refer to the two schools as “Paul Robeson” and between grades. SPARK, the equity
and “Davis.” Both schools were included initiative that I study in Paul Robeson and
as part of SPARK. The goal of SPARK is Davis, was implemented in 2018. Prior to
to increase educational achievement out- its implementation, Coburn’s data collec-
comes for Black students by identifying the tion team for COHERE received a grant to
reasons why Black students are not suc- specifically study SPARK at both Davis and
ceeding at their schools, and then develop- Paul Robeson.
ing and implementing strategies to address The interviews were conducted by
those reasons. three researchers from Coburn’s lab over
SPARK was implemented in two the course of the 2018-2019 school year.
types of schools throughout S District: his- Three levels of stakeholders were inter-
torically underserved schools and schools viewed. At the classroom level, 17 elemen-
with a high equity gap. For a school to tary teachers were interviewed. At each
qualify as underserved, more than 75% school, the principal, assistant principal,
of students at the school must identify as and instructional reform facilitator (IRF)
“African American,” “Latino/Hispanic,” or were also interviewed. Seventeen district
“Samoan;” more than 70% of students must leaders were also interviewed, but, as
qualify for free or reduced lunch; teachers many were not highly involved in SPARK,
must have less than six years of teaching I chose to only analyze the interviews of
experience; and schools must earn less the seven leaders who were most involved.
than a 30% proficiency rate in the Smarter Thus, I was able to sample across the orga-
Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) nizational levels of district, school, grades,
English language arts (ELA) test or SBAC and classrooms, holding the district and
math test. Both Paul Robeson and Davis most school attributes constant (see Ap-
qualify as “historically underserved” under pendix B for interview guides).
these criteria. The two schools share many My project progressed in six parts.
similarities in terms of their demographics First, I assembled and identified the sec-
and achievement data. See the demograph- ondary interview data needed for this
ic and achievement data tables in Appendix study, categorizing the individual by posi-
A for more details. tion (i.e., teacher, principal, or district lead-
The interviews that I analyzed were er). Second, I read through the interviews
conducted by members of Cynthia E. and pulled out excerpts related to SPARK.
Coburn’s data collection team for an ele- Third, I read these excerpts by each indi-
mentary coherence study (COHERE). The vidual interview to get a holistic sense of
data collection was supported by generous stakeholders’ perceptions. Fourth, I wrote
grants from the Heising-Simons Founda- memos after I finished reading through
tion and the Evelyn and Walter Hass, Jr. all interviews at each organizational level,
Fund to principal investigator Cynthia E. documenting my thoughts, preliminary
Coburn. I had access to this data as a re- findings, and analysis to be tested along
search assistant for the Coburn lab. The the way. These memos helped me draw
COHERE study was initially designed to connections between existing literature,
study various schools in S District, includ- my hypotheses, and the themes emerging
140
in the data. Fifth, I coded for three con- son had received SPARK, he responded,
tent categories: design, implementation, “We haven’t done really much. That’s the
and efficacy. Finally, I analyzed the codes, thing. It’s still once in a while talked about
comparing and contrasting them by orga- at principal meetings, but nobody really
nization level. quite understands what [SPARK] is.”
School leaders were also aware that
Empirical Results the teachers do not know much about the
This section provides supporting evidence initiative. When asked if teachers at her
for my hypothesis. I uncovered variation school would be able to correctly answer
in the perceptions of the initiative by if their school was a SPARK school or not,
organizational level, which I will evidence Louise, the IRF at Davis, replied “I don’t
with findings. While I did find variation think they would know. They’d say, ‘What
between the groups, however, I found that are you talking about?’” Kevin explained
teachers and principals had fairly similar that teachers were unaware at Paul Robe-
perceptions of SPARK and that much of son because he had not told them much
the variation in perception exists between about the initiative: “There’s no point in
stakeholders at the school level (teachers having a formal conversation with teach-
and school leaders) and those at the district ers because none of it is anything I can
level (see Appendix C and Appendix D for do myself. It’s just a matter of asking the
tables of my findings). right questions and waiting,” he said. Kev-
In general, I found that most teach- in decided not to share information about
ers do not have a strong understanding of SPARK until he believes there is anything
the design or goals of SPARK. Some are the school can actually do to implement it.
completely unaware of the program (five Paul Robeson’s principal (Kevin) and
of 17), while others recognize the name assistant principal (Edward), along with
and goal of the initiative but admit they Davis’s IRF (Louise), also believed the
“should know more” (nine of 17). Very few initiative’s design had considerable room
know any strategies SPARK has employed for improvement. For example, Kevin
to decrease racial achievement gaps (three assumed that SPARK was tossed together
of 17). with little forethought:
School leaders also have a somewhat I have no problem saying [SPARK]
limited grasp on SPARK. Both principals just looks like a bunch of things that
reported that they did not fully under- people contributed in a dark room
stand the initiative. Zulma, the principal on a Friday night of best practices
at Davis, explained that at back-to-school that they’re already seeing schools do,
night, “We gave a presentation, Esther (the because, to me, it’s a little insulting
when you throw on a rubric lesson
assistant principal of Davis) and I around
study as something that’s a marker of
what it means to be a SPARK school, what
something. It makes it seem as though
SPARK stands for. We didn’t have very it’s just something any school can do.
much information ourselves, in terms of It’s very difficult. It takes a lot of trust,
the exact resources that we would receive, and you have to have retention of high-
and so it was very general information.” quality staff and general interest. You’re
Kevin, the principal of Paul Robeson, told a sending lots of people in to observe
similar story. When asked how Paul Robe- public lessons, and also, there’s a lotta
141
collaboration around the development about SPARK existed even at the district
of this and the learning and all the stuff level. He admitted:
that happens beforehand. It’s not just a
I don’t know that we ever really fully
thing.
landed the plane on what SPARK is.
Kevin believed that district leaders care- [Chuckles] Is SPARK a framework
lessly designed SPARK and failed to un- for describing the conditions and the
derstand or acknowledge the difficulty of practices necessary for the success of
elements they include in their rubric. African-American students? I think
Two of the school leaders also dis- that’s understandable. Is SPARK some
cussed confusion as to whether schools type of a program? I think that’s less
palatable, frankly. I didn’t see it as a
will be receiving money as a part of the
program.
initiative or not and cite poor communica-
tion from district leaders as a cause of this His quote demonstrates that the design and
confusion. Kevin noted, “the only thing we goals of SPARK are not concrete.
heard was that there was $500,000 that was Many district leaders were also con-
going to be set aside for SPARK schools, fused about SPARK’s funding situation,
and there would be some sort of applica- just as the school leaders were. Samiya,
tion to determine how we get it. … There who worked at the district’s central office
still has been no application.” The other admitted, “To be honest, the money part
school leaders did not discuss any funding has been fuzzy for SPARK, that’s my only
related to the initiative or the application drawback.” Olaf, the district’s math content
process. specialist, asserted that, “Apparently, there
District leaders shared some of these is money attached to it, but the SPARK
perceptions while challenging others. They schools have to apply for that money and
were all aware of the initiative and many make some kind of proposal and say ‘this
had a deep understanding of it as they were is how we’re gonna change things.’ Then
members of SPARK’s design team. Yet, they can get the money. That’s about what
some district leaders understood that not I know right now.” Another district leader,
everyone in the district had fully grasped Sana, contradicted Olaf’s claim. Sana said:
SPARK. One leader, Calvin, mentioned We have all this money. I thought we
that he “ha[s] heard expressed that SPARK were gonna give it to schools. When
has yet to penetrate school communities someone in the group asked the
down to the teacher level and that teachers question, “Are we going to get money?”
The superintendent said, “You will be
may not yet understand what it means to
getting no money. You’re only going to
work in a SPARK school or what SPARK
get resources in the frame of strategies.”
is.” In other words, he had some awareness I didn’t understand that piece, because
of the way that schools were (or were not) frankly, then it becomes very top
interacting with SPARK. down.
The district leaders were more knowl-
District leaders also differed from
edgeable about SPARK than teachers and
school leaders in their perception of the
school leaders given that they served as
forethought of the design. Sana, a member
members of the design committee. How-
of the design committee, explained that
ever, Collin, the Deputy Superintendent of
counter to the principal at Paul Robeson’s
Instruction, did indicate that uncertainty
142
beliefs, substantial research, time, and ef- teaching in differentiating instruction.”
fort went into producing SPARK: District leaders also discussed that while
We took each component of SPARK strategies to go along with their rubric for
and we developed a really nice, detailed an equitable school were necessary, they
rubric around it. … We looked at L.A., were struggling to create ones that felt
we looked at Chicago, we looked at new. Sana said, “You can’t begin a whole
New York. We looked at Connecticut strategy implementation with the rubric.
with that, which I liked the most. We Because even though it’s saying, ‘Hey, let’s
looked at Texas. One of the districts all get on the same page and agree on what
— it was Houston or Dallas, one of
the expectations should be,’ [schools] are
the two, … we took the components
desperate to know how are we going to
of SPARK and we broke it down,
like with professional capacity. It is get there.” She agreed with school leaders
development and coaching, but it’s also that strategies must be added to SPARK in
the use of evidence and continuous order for it to be successful.
improvement. The instruction, it is a My findings suggest that there are
critical instruction assessment, but it both similarities and differences in the
is also strength-based. Understanding perception of design between organiza-
assets and prior knowledge, having tional levels. All levels showed some con-
high expectations, and differentiating, fusion about the design of the routine, yet
then transforming. That way, we school leaders had more knowledge than
broke it up and we created the rubric.
teachers, and district leaders had the most
I’m giving you the subsections of the
knowledge of the three groups. School and
rubric, and we created an evidence
column so that schools can see what district leaders also differed in their per-
that looks like. It’s not abstract. ception of how carefully or haphazardly
they believed SPARK was designed.
The design for this initiative actually was,
according to district leaders, very thought- Discussion
ful, but district leaders did not effectively
This study aimed to explore stakeholders’
communicate the extensive design process
perceptions of the design of an equi-
to school leaders given Kevin’s (Paul Robe-
ty-oriented school initiative (SPARK) for
son principal) assumption that SPARK
the purpose of identifying its potential
was thrown together. His assumption
strengths or weaknesses in order to aid in
may also suggest that while district leaders
the creation of new reforms that are more
considered many variables in creating the
successful at decreasing racial inequity in
initiative, they may not have considered
education. Through qualitative interviews,
the right variables to make SPARK truly
I uncovered variation in the ways that
effective.
individuals perceived the design of SPARK
District leaders and teachers did
within and between three levels of school
agree, however, that concrete strate-
organization: teachers, school leaders, and
gies must be added to SPARK’s design.
district leaders. Many of my study’s find-
Teachers explained that they would like
ings are consistent with existing education
more strategies or examples of culturally
literature, while some challenge or com-
relevant pedagogy and “more trainings
plicate current understandings of school
on just how to make culturally relevant
reform. I first relate my findings to other
143
“In order for new equity initiatives to be successful, they
must have a clear design with concrete goals and strategies,
and they must be accompanied by frequent and truthful
communication of information and perceptions of the
initiative between stakeholders.”
education reform studies, then I make of SPARK, while others did not know that
suggestions about how to construct more SPARK specifically targets the achieve-
effective equity reforms going forward. ment of Black students. At Paul Robeson,
teachers’ lack of awareness stemmed from
Relation to Existing Literature:
Kevin, the principal, who did not inform
My analysis of perceptions of SPARK
them about SPARK due to his own confu-
between organizational levels finds that
sion about it. Other school leaders at Davis
important variation exists in the way
shared this confusion. Even district leaders
that teachers, school leaders, and district
who took part in designing SPARK were
leaders perceived SPARK. In particular,
uncertain of its goals, strategies, and fund-
school and district leaders differed in their
ing. This finding is congruous with Spill-
awareness of SPARK and whether they
ane’s assertion that policy makers often
think SPARK was well designed. These
fail to create “clear and consistent” policy
differences are consistent with research
initiatives.31
that different organization levels hold
disparate opinions of reforms.28,29 Howev- Going Forward:
er, I also found many instances in which My analysis highlights several barriers
members of different organizational levels to SPARK’s success: confusion over its
share the same opinions, with respect to design, goals, and funding. Based on my
their confusion about SPARK and frustra- findings, I identify two possible solutions
tion with its design and funding. Teachers to these barriers which could increase the
and school leaders in particular did not effectiveness of future reforms: (1) better
vary considerably in their perceptions of communication between and within orga-
SPARK. nizational levels and (2) a more concrete
The degree of confusion among all design of initiatives.
three organizational levels is also consis- One reason Paul Robeson’s principal,
tent with existing literature. Kezar et al. Kevin, gives for disliking SPARK is that it
explain that, “Reforms may be unsuccessful “looks like a bunch of things that people
because educators are often completely un- contributed in a dark room on a Friday
aware of the existence of equity initiatives night of best practices that they’re already
in their schools, or that equity is a major seeing schools do.” This led him to distrust
focus of their initiatives.”30 I found this to the initiative and not implement it. If dis-
be the case with SPARK; some of the teach- trict leaders better communicated SPARK’s
ers in my study were completely unaware design process to principals, Kevin might
28 Keiser and Shen.

29 Rusher et al.
30 Kezar et al.
31 Spillane, 2002.
144
have seen SPARK in a different light and menting future reforms due to increasing-
been more willing to engage with it. ly jaded administrators, like Kevin, who
Kevin also seemed to have a strong are skeptical that any reform can produce
distrust of district leaders, which is fairly change. It also inhibits district leaders, the
commonplace in the education field.32 This creators of the reforms, from knowing
distrust seemed to stem from a notion that what the school leaders truly want, which
the two levels have different perceptions led to poor design of the initiative. Samiya
and goals. However, my research shows posited that school leaders do not want
that in reality, school and district leaders new initiatives and will just brush off nov-
shared many of the same perceptions. el programs or ideas. Yet, Kevin states that
School and district leaders expressed skep- he does not like SPARK precisely because
ticism over the funding, goals, and lack it is not new. If school leaders and district
of strategies of SPARK. Both levels even leaders communicated more openly, then
expressed frustration with (fellow) district Kevin’s needs for SPARK to be novel
leaders. Yet, the groups seemed to be hid- might be better satisfied, which might lead
ing their true perceptions from each other. him to implement it.
Sana, the Chief of Research, explained, A clearer design of SPARK could
“With [principals], I’m not going to say also alleviate communication problems. If
anything I said to you. I’m going to hold a district leaders identified clear goals and
very, very strong district voice, and defend strategies and understood SPARK’s fund-
everything we are doing.” By playing into ing before rolling it out to schools, then
politics of the district, she may have been school leaders like Kevin may have had
hurting student outcomes because the ten- more faith in the initiative and chosen to
sion she is exacerbating between school implement it sooner. Kevin may then have
and district leaders impedes equity reform. had a conversation with teachers to in-
School leaders Edward and Kevin also crease their awareness of SPARK. A more
chose not to openly communicate their concrete initiative would also have miti-
perceptions. Edward explained that rather gated communication between leaders, as
than telling district leaders upfront that district leaders would have been clearer
SPARK was not what his school wanted about SPARK and therefore more able to
and that he would not implement it, he respond to questions about it.
said, “We’re moving forward, and it’s just
like this SPARK, it’s embedded here. We’re Conclusion
just gonna do our thing, and when they’re This study examined stakeholders’ per-
ready to ask if this is what we need, then ceptions of SPARK, an equity initiative, in
this is where we’re gonna perform.” In two historically underserved elementary
the meantime, while Edward and Kevin schools in California, filling a gap in ex-
are waiting for district leaders to ask them isting literature. Analysis of 31 interview
about SPARK, students are failing to meet transcripts uncovered variation in the
standards. This lack of communication perceptions between three organizational
slows down change and aggravates ten- levels: teachers, school leaders, and district
sion between organization levels. Added leaders.
tension increases the difficulty of imple- My project has several main limita-
32 Tina M. Trujillo, “The politics of district instructional policy formation,” Educational Policy, 2012, 27(3), 531-559.
145
tions. First, while I hope to uncover stake- study would not truly examine stakehold-
holders’ perceptions of school reforms ers’ complete perceptions of the initiative,
more generally, I understand that the per- but rather examine their initial perceptions
ceptions represented in my case study do of it. Further research could be conducted
not necessarily represent the perceptions to determine if stakeholders’ views of ini-
of all teachers, principals, and district lead- tiatives change over time. As mentioned
ers of all equity reforms. The stakeholders earlier, additional research might also ex-
at Davis and Paul Robeson may not be plore student and parent perceptions of the
representative of all teachers, principals, initiative.
and superintendents. They may be more Furthermore, my analysis is marked
or less acquainted with issues of equity by my biases. My identity and experiences
than the average educators, and they may as a white woman with a privileged educa-
have more or less exposure to the initia- tion are inherently entangled in my meth-
tives than other stakeholders might. They odologies, findings, and analysis of race
may also not be a representative sample and education.
of stakeholders in terms of their age, race, By focusing on the perceptions of
gender, and years of experience on the job, teachers and administrators, I was able to
which would diminish the generalizability analyze the problems with SPARK that de-
of the study.33 Additionally, SPARK does signers and implementers identify in order
not represent all equity reforms, which to inform more successful equity initiatives
vary widely in their design and implemen- in the future. Existing research examines
tation. Thus, stakeholders’ perceptions of both the failures of equity reforms and the
this initiative do not necessarily represent way that opinions vary by organizational
what their perceptions of all initiatives level. My research is novel in its compar-
would be, which also limits the study’s ison of perceptions of an equity reform
generalizability. between organizational levels. The results
Further, my study is limited in that it of my study offer a more nuanced under-
only analyzed interviews from the first year standing of stakeholders’ perceptions.
of the initiative. Opinions could very well They suggest that in order for new equity
change over the course of a couple years as initiatives to be successful, they must have
stakeholders get a better sense of SPARK or a clear design with concrete goals and
if positive adjustments are made. This may strategies, and they must be accompanied
affect the validity of my study.34 If stake- by frequent and truthful communication of
holders’ perceptions drastically changed information and perceptions of the initia-
after the first year of implementation, my tive between stakeholders. ■
33 Babbie.
34 Ibid.
146
Appendices (A-D)
Appendix A: Demographic and Assessment Data Tables
Demographic Data Table

% of students % of students % of students % students
Number of en- that identify as that identify % of students that identify % of students that are socio- % of English
rolled students Black or Afri- as Hispanic/ that identify as as Asian that identify as economically language % of homeless
School in 2018-19 can American Latinx Pacific Islander American white disadvantaged learners students
Davis 200 50% 20% 5% 5% 1% 80% 20% 10%
Paul Robe-
200 40% 40% 20% 1% 1% 90% 40% 5%
son
Achievement Data Table

% of students that met or exceeded state % of students that met or exceeded state
School standards in Literacy standards in Math
Davis 15% 5%
Paul Robeson 10% 10%
Appendix B: Interview Guides

Note that the following interview guides have been edited for brevity and relevance to the subject of this
paper, i.e., the SPARK equity initiative.
Teachers
1. [All] We are interested in learning about SPARK-related work at your school.
a. What have you heard about the SPARK initiative?
b. [If yes] What’s your sense of the mission and goals of SPARK?
c. [If yes] How is SPARK different, if at all, from previous district or school efforts to support African American students?
d. How have parents responded to SPARK? [Probe: any push back regarding focusing on African American students, or
particular strategies…]
e. How have other teachers responded to SPARK?
f. How have the principal responded to SPARK?
g. And what about students, how have they responded to SPARK?
2. [Ask 1-4 only if they are on the school’s Instructional Leadership Team and/or report strong understanding of SPARK] Can
you tell us about the SPARK activities at your school?
a. How were you involved, if at all, in designing the SPARK plan/activities for your school?
b. How is implementation going so far?
c. How, if at all, are you involved in implementing your school’s SPARK plan?
d. Bright spots? Challenges or roadblocks?
3. What professional learning opportunities have you been offered, by the district or the school, as part of SPARK? [trainings
regarding Culturally Relevant Pedagogy, …?]
a. What was the purpose of this training? What did it focus on?
b. What, if anything, did you take away from the training?
c. Are there things that you’re doing differently as a result?
4. How, if at all, does SPARK related to/interact with other reform efforts at your school?
5. [All] Attitudes regarding African American learners and pedagogy. We know that the district created SPARK to promote the
academic success of African American students. Is this an issue that is relevant at your school?
School Leaders
SPARK Q1. Your school is a SPARK school. How has your school community received SPARK?
[Probe] How did teachers/families/students learn about SPARK? How have they responded?
147
SPARK Q2. All SPARK schools conducted a self-assessment before the start of the school year on the SPARK Continuum of Effective
Practices. Who was involved in the self-assessment at your school?
[Probe] School leadership/staff
[Probe] Ferlisha, Samiya, Sana, other district staff
[Probe] Input from students, families, partners
SPARK Q3. What were the main findings of the root cause analysis?
[Probe] What measurable goal for improvement did you select? Why that goal?
[Probe] What strategies did you identify to implement? Why those strategies?
Grade-level/s?
SPARK Q4. Did you request supplemental funds and/or resources to carry out the SPARK work? Did the district grant your request?
SPARK Q5. Have you started implementing the strategies?
[Probe] If yes, how is it going? What do those strategies look like in PreK, TK, K-2?
[Probe] If not, what are next steps?
SPARK Q6. How will you know if the strategies led to improvement?
[Probe] Are you engaging (or do you plan to engage) in PDSA cycles? If yes, what are you trying to accomplish? Who is/
will be involved? Timeline?
SPARK Q7. Are there any challenges or drawbacks associated with being a SPARK school?
SPARK Q8. Are there any supports that you wish you had to move forward the SPARK efforts at the school?
District Leaders
Background
1. What’s your (current) role in the district?
a. How long have you been involved with the SPARK Initiative and what are your specific responsibilities with regard to
this initiative?
b. What percentage of your time is devoted to SPARK?
SPARK History and Vision
2. Can you briefly describe the history of the SPARK Initiative?
a. How did SPARK come about?
b. What was your role in developing SPARK?
c. What are the problems SPARK is designed to address?
d. Who were key players in the creation of the Initiative?
e. What are the long-term goals of SPARK?
3. In your view, what are the main things the district should be doing to support the achievement of African American students?
4. How is SPARK different from previous district approaches to support African American students?
SPARK Dimensions and Toolkit
5. Can you briefly describe the key components of SPARK?
a. Why those components?
6. Were you involved in designing the SPARK toolkit and improvement process guide? If so,
a. What sources of information or models helped inform the SPARK continuum?
b. Why was improvement science/continuous improvement integrated into the school planning process?
District Coordination
7. How is the district coordinating SPARK efforts?
a. Who is responsible for managing this initiative?
b. What other departments and/or individuals are involved, and how?
SPARK Implementation and Impact
8. Who reviews and approves school SPARK plans (root cause analysis, self-assessment on SPARK continuum, measurable goal,
& selected strategies)?
9. What resources and/or financial support is provided to schools to implement SPARK?
a. How are resource requests evaluated and allocations determined?
b. Who is in charge of making those decisions?
10. What does high quality SPARK implementation look like?
a. What evidence do you look for in relation to 1) “understand the problem”; 2) “focus efforts”; and 3) “test the change” stages
of implementation?
11. Who monitors and evaluates the implementation of SPARK?
a. How will the district be holding the SPARK schools accountable for implementing their plans?
b. What are major milestones and steps in the process?
12. How is implementation going so far?
a. Bright spots?
b. Challenges or roadblocks?
13. How do you measure impact of the SPARK initiative?
a. What are key indicators of success in the short, medium, and long-term?
SPARK Supports
14. What are ways in which the district supports the SPARK schools?
a. Prompt for supports in relation to each of the dimensions of SPARK.
148
15. What professional learning opportunities are available to SPARK schools? [trainings regarding equity-centered leadership and
improvement science?]
a. What are the purposes and why are these considered to be important?
b. Who participates in the trainings? Is participation optional or mandatory?
c. Does the district provide coaching to schools on their approved SPARK strategies? Who provides the coaching support?
School-Level Planning/Implementation
16. We are interested in learning about SPARK-related work in two specific schools. Can you tell us about SPARK activities at
Davis? Paul Robeson?
a. To what extent will mathematics instruction be altered?
b. What will this school approach look like at the PreK-3 level?
17. How have principals, teachers, students, and parents responded to SPARK? [Probe: focus on African American students]
a. How have parents and community members been engaged in the SPARK process?
Concluding Questions
18. How, if at all, does SPARK related to/interact with other reform efforts in the district?
19. Is there anything that I have not asked about that would help me better understand SPARK?
20. Are there other individuals in the district or elsewhere that you recommend we contact in order to get a better understanding
of the design and implementation of SPARK?
21. We are eager to stay in touch with you as the initiative continues and would greatly appreciate you sending us any emails or
materials you develop so we can track the initiative and its activities over time.
Appendix C: Coding Schema
Codes Definitions Examples
Instances where an in- We took the components of SPARK and we broke it down, like with profession-
terviewee discusses how al capacity. It is development and coaching, but it’s also the use of evidence and
the initiative was created continues improvement. The instruction, it is critical instruction assessment,
or planned, including but it is also strength-based. Understanding assets and prior knowledge, having
Design research that went into high expectations, and differentiating, then transforming. That way, we broke
it and what players were it up and we created the rubric. I’m giving you the sub-sections of the rubric,
involved and we created an evidence column so that schools can see what that looks like.
It’s not abstract. We’ve done that in terms of our contribution, but at this point
what is needed is, how do we get there?
Instances where an in- Nikil: We have an implementation issue at our school, so whether our teachers
Content of
Imple- terviewee discusses how or our staff have new materials, new resources, until we implement it in the
Perception
mentation the initiative has actually classroom and actually do the work, I think the impact will be minimal.
been put into practice.
Instances where an Right. I just feel like most of the equity PDs I’ve done at the schools I’m at,
interviewee discusses they never seem to actually go deep into where we’re challenging core beliefs.
the effectiveness of the We all just talk about, “Oh, I’m white. These are the things that being white...
initiative in increasing Yes, I have privilege.” But, I have questions about why am I struggling in my
educational outcomes classroom with African American boys? No, it’s okay. Where’s that discussion?
Efficacy
for African American Why are children sitting in the hall? What’s happening in our classrooms that
students in the district. kids are walking out? We don’t have those conversations. And, I think as long
as we keep it adult focused and we’re all talking about what equity means to us,
or the definition of equity, or all this really stuff, we’re never going to address
those issues that keep recurring.
149
Appendix D: Analysis of Content
*Note: Paul Robeson is abbreviated as PR.
Content of Perceptions Within and Between Organizational Levels
Design Implementation Efficacy
• 5 know nothing about • 1 says she has seen no • 2 think SPARK offers
SPARK (4 PR, 1 Davis) implementation of SPARK nothing new, both Davis
• 9 know something about • 9 talk about Professional • 3 like SPARK (2 PR, 1 Davis)
SPARK (4 PR, 5 Davis) development where they • 5 are critical of curriculum
Teachers (17)
• 3 are fairly knowledgeable (1 reflected on their biases (2 (3 Davis, 2 Paul Robeson; 4
PR, 2 Davis) PR, 7 Davis) white, 1 Asian)
• 1 likes curriculum (Davis,
Black)
• 2 from PR concerned about • Davis carried out SPARK • 2 from PR think SPARK
funding self-assessment, PR did not offers nothing new, 1 from
• Both principals feel they • PR has not had formal Davis
lack full information about conversation with teachers
School
SPARK about SPARK, Davis has
Leaders
• PR leaders know that • PR principal thinks slides and
teachers unaware of SPARK letters DL gave them to show
• PR principal thinks SPARK families were inappropriate
was haphazardly designed
• 6 confused about funding • 1 thinks was inappropriate • All think SPARK offers
• 2 disagree about whether to rollout SPARK without two new things: equity gap
SPARK should be a rubric or having concrete strategies schools and “Transforming
District
just have strategies • 1 thinks PR has applied mindsets”
Leaders
• Understand that schools do for funding when the PR • One thinks not offering much
not know about SPARK principal says he has not seen novelty is a strength.
any application
150
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152
Portrait of a Lab By Rachel Chiu
Principal Investigator Research Study Coordinator

Adrianna Weisleder Gaby España
Graduate Student Undergraduate Research Assistant

Anele Villanueva McKenna Lanter
153
Feature: Portrait of a Lab
A research lab often involves individ-

uals at various levels of scholarship,
including a principal investigator(s), lab
Principal Investigator Adrianna Weisleder.
The Lab studies how children learn lan-
guage through interactions with the world
coordinators, graduate students, and un- and people around them. It is especially
dergraduate students. In order to better interested in language development in
understand this ecosystem, the Journal in- bilingual children as well as the socioeco-
terviewed four individuals from one such nomic conditions in which children learn
lab to see how their work fits together as languages. The Journal interviewed Weis-
an interconnected research effort. leder, research study coordinator Gaby
The Child Language Lab (CLL) in the España, graduate student Anele Villanue-
Department of Communication Sciences va, and undergraduate research assistant
and Disorder (CSD) was founded in 2018 McKenna Lanter about their role in the
and is directed by CSD Professor and CLL CLL.
How long have

you been in the
Lab, and what is Weisleder
your role there? The CLL has been around for a little
over three years. We’re the newest
lab in the CSD department! I guide
the broad directions of the Lab: I
write grant proposals so that we can
do that work, but I also view my role
as enabling students to work on their
own questions through independent
projects.
154
Lanter
I’ve been in the Lab since
winter of my first year, so
three years. I got involved
through the Research
Villanueva Experience Award in CSD.
This is my second year in the Lab.

I’m a Ph.D. student so I have my
own research projects, but I also try
to lead a subcommittee of students
in the group that goes over anti-
racist, equitable assessments. I feel
like I’m a mentor or leader but also
learn from others, too.
España
Since May of 2019. I’m a research study
coordinator — I have an interesting
position in that I am a part of the CLL
and also a part of another study called the
Stress, Pregnancy, and Health Study. In
the CLL, we have weekly meetings, and
I help facilitate some of those meetings.
We have a newsletter that comes out
of the Lab, and I also help
spearhead that.
155
What do your
day-to-day
tasks look like? Villanueva
My day-to-day tasks vary week to
week. Typically, I wake up early to
reply to emails and then try to work on
my Qualifying Research Project (QRP)
for one hour. I try to block time to work
on different projects or tasks, and I have
meetings with different members of the
lab to discuss our research projects or
train a research assistant to
help me with my
QRP.
Weisleder
On a weekly basis, it’s a little easier to
describe. We have weekly lab meetings
with everyone in the Lab, where we
discuss articles and also think about
directions of the Lab and new projects.
I have project meetings for each of
the studies in the Lab to talk about
what’s going on in them. I also have
individual meetings with
students.
156
Lanter
My day-to-day varies a bit based on
what the project needs me to do. This
year and last year, I was involved in a
graduate student’s dissertation project.
We had to go back and code the kids’
behaviors while they did specific tasks.
Now, I’m starting the training for doing
language transcriptions so that they can
later be analyzed for utterance,
number of words, etc.
España
Always moving. I do a lot of scheduling
of participants, starting to consent them,
mailing out CLL materials, managing
students, and creating a lot of processes
and systems. I do a lot of immediate
things that are participant-facing but
then also creating background systems
so that everything goes smoothly.
157
How do your
personal research
interests intersect
with the Lab’s
research interests?
Lanter
I remember that I was really interested
in learning about how poverty impacts
children’s language development and
bilingualism. I’m also now also interested
in kids’ behavioral and emotional
regulation, dysregulation, and how
language ties into that. Metacognition
is also super cool and is super important
España for that emotional and behavioral
regulation.
Before coming to the Lab, I was
part of a Chicagoland college access
program. I was a family program
associate, so I did a lot of parent
education, one-on-one meetings,
and mentorship with students. I’m
really interested in making sure that
these research questions really
come from a people-
first lens.
158
“I’m really interested in making sure that these research
questions really come from a people-first lens.”
Weisleder
Because we’re a pretty new lab, there
are many things I’m interested in
and many directions that are in the
pile of things to be done. I’m also
very excited if there’s a student who
wants to take the lead on one of those
questions or come up with their own
question that is related to the
broad goal of the
projects. Villanueva
In the Lab, I am working on a project
examining how dual language input
varies by social context in immigrant
families in the U.S. I’m really interested in
how language can be linked to a person’s
identity. I’m also interested in how
young children may understand different
language hierarchies in the U.S., especially
in a society that’s pretty English-
dominant.
159
Do you have a España

favorite part of what
When I get to consent parents or
you do, or is there a do interviews with them, there’s
favorite finding that something really nice about getting to
build rapport. The thing I love about
you have? the CLL is the team meetings — it’s a
very unique meeting in that we include
undergraduates, graduate students,
the research coordinators, and
we are all learning
together.
Villanueva
My favorite finding is that … children are

shifting their language dominance to the
societal language even though the adult
caregivers are still speaking that home
language. That can have lots of implications
for how they perceive languages and speak
other languages. My favorite part is also
talking out loud about my research project
because that helps me to … get feedback
and other perspectives on my
research projects.
160
Weisleder
I have such a hard time answering that

question because I have so many favorite
things! Definitely one of my favorite parts
is the people in my lab. I love to hear what
people have to say, people’s questions,
people’s insights. I love little kids and
seeing what they think and what they
say. … When I get to watch a video and
see how kids are responding to
different tasks, that’s a
highlight.
Lanter
The project that I’m working on now,
looking at language development in late
talkers, has the coolest setup looking at
how kids process language semantically
and phonologically. For example, there’s a
picture of a bed and a car on the screen.
If the [late talkers] hear “look at the gar,”
[since their] representation of the sound
is fuzzy, they’ll look at the car on the
screen whether the sound is
“car” or “gar.”
161
Do you feel like

your role differs greatly
from others in the
Lab? In what ways do
you think having all of
these different levels of
involvement are essential España
for the Lab to run?
I’m always one foot in, one foot out because
I’m in so many different areas. I came in
[without] a background in developmental
psychology and communication sciences
and disorders [like] everyone else. In college,
I studied education and sociology, and we’re
now steering towards an area of anti-racist
research. I was very interested in systems
of inequality, especially in education, so
Lanter I’m very comfortable [with]
this shift [in] the
My role as a research assistant doesn’t differ CLL.
much from other research assistants in the lab.
It does differ from say, seniors in the lab who
are doing their own independent research
projects. It’s cool to bring all of those different
perspectives together. The Ph.D. students
bring the questions; the undergraduates bring
the energy and activism and social justice
work. It’s really cool to see a science and human
perspective come together because of
the different people in the
lab.
162
Villanueva
I think my role being a graduate student is to

set a good example for other students. My role
is also galvanizing other people [to show that]
research is awesome! Whenever there are
people in the lab who are applying to graduate
school, I’m happy to help and share my
materials. My role is also to acknowledge that
we all make mistakes and that learning from
one another is very valuable, so [I] really uplift
voices from various levels of the research
team. … I don’t want to have a
hierarchy in the lab.
Weisleder
I think back to when I was an undergraduate

and getting started in research, and my questions
came from experiences in the world. The more I
learned, the more my questions started to become
more in line with the research in the field. Having
involvement from different levels helps to keep
the lab dynamic. We have questions from people
who are just getting started and still have their
eyes wide open, but it’s also helpful to have people
with expertise, people who turn a big idea into
something that’s operationalizable
and can be turned into a
research study. ■
163
Faculty Adviser: Andrew Papachristos
Developments or Division?
The Role Large Public
Investment Project Plays
in Gentrification:
A Case Study on Chicago’s 606
by Yu Wang
Abstract
Efficiency and equity have always been key dilemmas in local economic
developments. On one hand, economic prosperity is crucial for sustain-
able growth; on the other hand, the neighborhoods might undergo gen-
trification, transforming the area to appeal to high-end markets. Hence,
vulnerable or indigenous residents might face displacement. This thesis
project quantitatively examines a hybrid form of gentrification in modern
American cities by using the difference-in-differences method. More spe-
cifically, the research narrows its lens on the 606 Bloomingdale Bike Trail
in Chicago to gain generalized insights for these newly formed rail-to-trail
projects.
In order to examine the treatment of this bike trail, Chicago census
data from 2010–2017 was collected and divided into two groups: one that
is within a mile of the bike trail and one that is not. My findings only
partially support my hypotheses. The data show that gentrification is ex-
acerbating segregation within the community instead of converting dis-
invested neighborhoods. The bike trail fortifies the barriers to live in the
wealthier regions while continuing to isolate the disinvested parts. Further
research using spatial regression is required to determine the extent and
the composition of the 606’s effect on its surrounding neighborhoods.
164
Introduction based on income, race, etc.; but they might
Large public investment projects are also face displacement due to construction.
crucial to urban developments — they Nonetheless, without these large pub-
are the key screw in the urban growth lic investment projects to stimulate growth
engine, bringing convenience, economic and create a positive feedback loop in the
opportunities, improved aesthetics, and neighborhood, the community may for-
leisure amenities to a neighborhood. ever be trapped in the spiral of disinvest-
In order to maximize efficiency in the ment. Thus, the dilemma of whether and
limited space in an urban area, a good how to welcome these revitalization initia-
public investment project should meet tives remains crucial for neighborhoods. In
all these criteria. The 606 Bloomingdale other words, how could and should devel-
Bike Trail seems to be a perfect fit. It opments be planned in order to minimize
offers another route for people to com- potential damage from gentrification? The
mute to work, it creates jobs and attracts answer would affect the balance between
tourists from Chicago and beyond, it is equity and economic developments and
no longer an abandoned rail line but an the consideration for indigenous residents.
artistic elevated bike trail, and it provides The government, which is normally the
green spaces for residents to exercise, primary funder of public investment proj-
walk, and relax. The trail would not only ects and should be the gatekeeper of equi-
be a good infrastructure for the existing table developments, often favors certain
residents but would also be an even sides due to political and monetary consid-
greater selling point to attract affluent erations or time constraints.
potential residents. On the surface, this Some may argue that gentrification
development appears to be a great boost- is an inevitable outcome of economic
er for surrounding neighborhoods. How- development, but research in sociology
ever, it induces gentrification by abruptly has shown that institutions often exploit
changing the area’s physical landscapes, gentrification as a tool to stratify certain
causing displacements of the indigenous groups of people.1 In other words, gen-
residents and widening inequality within trification helps to solidify an existing
the community. social hierarchy to ensure the supremacy
Gentrification takes on many forms of a dominant group. As a sociologist, I
in urban areas, from transportation infra- am interested in measuring the degree
structure and environment beautifications of inequality gentrification creates in a
to the revitalization of abandoned sites and neighborhood and its mechanisms of
promotion of green spaces. These develop- change. The degree of inequality would
ments attract the affluent, educated, young, not only reflect common socioeconomic
and generally white population to the once status indicators, such as household in-
disinvested neighborhoods, creating posi- come, property values, tenure status, etc.;
tive feedback by encouraging more public it would also indirectly influence social
investment projects in the area. Indigenous factors like racial composition, education-
residents (or former residents) are not only al attainment, and residential stability.
excluded from these amenities and benefits The 606 Bloomingdale Bike Trail
due to various discriminatory practices used to be an abandoned rail line, but the
1 Zuk, et al., “Gentrification, displacement, and the role of public investment,” 2018.
165
City of Chicago partnered with Friends of does the 606 have on the surrounding
the Bloomingdale Trail (an organization neighborhoods’ social composition? My
formed by local residents) and The Trust independent variable is the census tracts
for Public Land (a non-profit organization that are one mile within the 606 Bike Trail
known for raising funds and overseeing versus the non-606 census tracts in the
park constructions) to transform it into an rest of Chicago. My dependent variables
elevated trail (Figure 1).2 Construction on are housing affordability, racial composi-
the trail began in 2013 and was complet- tion, educational attainment, percentage
ed and made open to the public in 2015. of migration, and percentage of renters.
The mixed views since then highlight By testing these variables, I can evaluate
the inequality this project reinforces on the role the 606 Bike Trail plays and the
the surrounding neighborhoods. A study extent of the effect it has on the gentri-
by Smith et al. (2016) shows that the lo- fication process in those neighborhoods.
cal housing market has surged since the
groundbreaking of the 606.3 However, Theory and Hypothesis
neither this study nor research by Rigolon My definition of gentrification builds
and Németh (2018) show the 606’s impacts upon the definition proposed by Glass
beyond the housing market.4 Moreover, (1964).5 I define gentrification as the pro-
their main methods — interviews, archival cess of replacing and displacing indigenous
research, and Hedonic Price Model — fail
to account for longitudinal changes.
In order to examine how large pub-
lic investment projects can lead to gen-
trification, this thesis dives into a case
study of Chicago 606 Bike Trail using
a quantitative approach, namely the dif-
ference-in-differences method. I aim to
build on prior theories and drill deeper to
discuss the overall phenomenon’s social
implications. First, I ask to what extent
has the 606 Bloomingdale Bike Trail, an
example of a large public investment proj- S Figure 1. This map of Chicago with highlighted
ect, influenced housing affordability in community areas presents the study site of this
the surrounding neighborhoods. Howev- thesis project. The boundaries with lighter weight
are the census tract boundary in 2017 according
er, housing affordability is just a number. to the U.S. Census Bureau. The boundaries
To make that number significant, I ex- with heavier weight are the borders of Chicago
amine other commonly-studied aspects of community areas. The highlighted regions are the
neighborhoods surrounding the 606. They are on
gentrification in sociology. Therefore, my the northwest side of Chicago downtown area The
second research question is: What impact Loop. The green line indicated the 606 Bike Trail.
2 Rigolon & Németh, “We’re not in the business of housing: Environmental gentrification and the nonprofitization of green infra-
structure projects,” 2018.
3 Smith, et al, “Measuring the impact of the 606: Understanding how a large public investment impacted the surrounding housing
market,”2016.
5 Glass, London: Aspects of Change, 1964.
166
“Without these the pressure and threat of displacement.
In Marcuse (1985)’s theory on displace-
large public ment, residents are either directly forced
out of the neighborhoods either when
investment projects landlords drastically increase rent or
when there is heightened displacement
to stimulate growth pressure through visible and foreign
economic and community changes.7 Ex-
and create a amples of displacement pressure would
be the establishment of a high-end and
positive feedback locally owned boutique store that indig-
loop in the enous residents cannot afford. Although
they are still living in the neighborhood,
neighborhood, the these buildings raise an invisible wall
and block them from their community
community may power. This displacement pressure will
not necessarily dislocate indigenous res-
forever be trapped idents, but it will widen the segregation
within the community.
in the spiral of Given that the 606 Bike Trail is a
hybrid form of gentrification with its
disinvestment.” transportation infrastructure, urban green
space, and local art works, I theorized that
residents through urban development or
it would lead to gentrification based on the
revitalization initiatives until the culture
past findings discussed in the literature re-
and population is completely changed.
view section. To assess the effect of these
Urban developments can take many
mechanisms on the surrounding neigh-
forms, from public investment projects
borhoods, I investigated the gentrification
to private developers and private funding
outcomes mentioned earlier.
to residents’ personal initiatives. As in-
The dominant group that reinforces
dicated in Rigolon and Németh (2018)’s
displacement is usually whiter, more edu-
research,6 the partnerships among the City
cated, and more affluent than indigenous or
of Chicago (and Chicago Park District),
former residents. Past research in sociolo-
The Trust of Public Land, and the Friends
gy has documented the social composition
of the Bloomingdale Trail form this exact
of gentrification, especially on race.8,9,10
triangular relationship, which reinforces
In these studies, residents of color have
gentrification and marginalizes vulner-
attempted to resist development in their
able and financially-deprived residents.
own areas, but are eventually displaced
Marginalized residents eventually face
7 Marcuse, “Gentrification, abandonment, and displacement: Connections, causes, and policy responses in New York City,” 1985.
8 Bader et al., “Community attraction and avoidance in chicago: What’s race got to do with it?” 2015; Krysan et al., “Does race mat-
ter in neighborhood preferences? Results from a video experiment,” 2009; Hwang & Sampson, “Divergent pathways of gentrifica-
tion: Racial inequality and the social order of renewal in Chicago neighborhoods,” 2014.
9
10
167
as the living cost becomes too high for ability in the surrounding neighborhoods.
them. Eventually, the area is transformed Nevertheless, not all neighborhoods
into a white-dominated space. Danley and exposed to the 606 experienced the same
Weaver (2018) further expand on this degree of impact. In other words, gentri-
theory of white space, explaining that it fication is the most apparent at margins.
creates a sense of unwelcomeness for resi- It most severely affects the disinvest-
dents of color and pledges to a specific type ed neighborhoods that are undergoing
of lifestyle that can only be afforded by an the initial redevelopment process. Lees
affluent population. Therefore, my first et al. (2008) argue that in order for a
hypothesis is as follows: neighborhood to experience residential
Hypothesis 1: 606 encourages a more gentrification, it must be an underserved
white, affluent, and educated population to neighborhood.13 The introduction of the
move in, while displacing or segregating people 606 to already-gentrified neighborhoods
of color or indigenous residents. (such as West Town in this case) will
This study on the 606 will not only not have a great effect since the so-
focus on the social compositions of the bike cial composition already matches with
trail’s surrounding neighborhoods, but also the one mentioned in Hypothesis One.
on housing affordability in the area. Zuk et Thus, my final hypothesis is:
al. (2018) indicate in their reviews of public Hypothesis 3: The impacts of the 606
investment and gentrification that desired are greater in disinvested neighborhoods than
public investments such as transit could already-affluent and developed areas.
lead to higher rents and living expenses.11 If my findings had matched my three
As the new community attraction, the 606 hypotheses, I would have identified a
drove housing demand up, but the supply steep upward trend in both housing pric-
remained the same. However, private de- es and the proportion of white, affluent,
velopers could demolish old buildings in and educated residents in the study site.
order to rehabilitate them into appealing I expected to find more people of color
single town-homes. Consequently, the moving out after the trail was made open
neighborhood might lose affordable hous- to the public. If the displacement effect
ing and low-income residents while block- was not significantly strong, I might have
ing other low-income individuals and fam- noticed exacerbated segregation within
ilies from moving in. One study has shown the neighborhood, which can be seen by
that the housing prices on both sides, but comparing the growth and declines in
particularly the west part of the trail, went property values and demographic changes
up after construction began.12 My second between already-affluent neighborhoods
hypothesis builds on this conclusion to and the disinvested ones.
study the results using a different time
frame and method to further validate it. Methods and Data
My second hypothesis is as follows: The main goal of this research project
Hypothesis 2: The 606 public in- was to examine the changes in social
vestment project will lower housing afford- composition and housing affordability
11 Zuk, et al., “Gentrification, displacement, and the role of public investment,” 2018.
market,”2016.
13 Lees, et al., Gentrification. London: Routledge, 2008.
168
in the surrounding neighborhoods of the Additionally, many residents have recent-
606 Bloomingdale Bike Trail using census ly moved into the area, so qualitative ev-
tracts from 2010–2017. One issue with idence would potentially be less accurate
the former studies, particularly one by in this sense as well.
Smith and colleagues, is that the Hedonic Data
Price regression model can only calculate Quantitative longitudinal data col-
housing prices.14,15 It also assumes that lection for this study contained
all buyers have full knowledge of the census tract level data for the pe-
market and the power to choose what riod 2010–2017 from the American
they prefer if given the resources. These Community Survey via the portal of
calculations cannot reflect social changes the National Historical Geographical
that happened throughout 2010–2017, Information System (NHGIS) in Inte-
when the 606 was planned, constructed, grated Public Use Microdata (IPUMS).
and made open to the public. Therefore, The American Community Survey is
a regression model that can encompass a yearly report based on an ongoing
social composition variables is essential survey that aims to capture demo-
for this project. Hence, I selected the dif- graphic information on the population
ference-in-differences model. The basic of the United States. I also created
structure to achieve this goal was to divide seven indicator variables manually: (1)
the census tracts into two groups: one whether the tract is exposed to the
with the treatment of the 606 Bike Trail 606 within a mile, (2) whether the
and one without. The two groups were observation is made after the 606
then compared with time series and other was made open to the public, (3)
independent variables. The coefficients the interaction of the 606 and time,
acquired at the end would provide insights (4) whether the tract is considered
into the question: To what extent has the non-affluent, (5) the interaction term
606 Bike Trail socially influenced the sur- between non-affluency and the 606,
rounding neighborhoods? (6) the interaction term between
This study took a quantitative ap- non-affluency and time, and (7) the
proach because it worked best to examine interaction term of all three together
changes over time. This methodology (which will be further discussed in
enabled me to comprehensively gather the section below).
empirical evidence and hence minimize To construct my master dataset, I first
potential spurious variables and alter- imported my data and shapefiles into Arc-
native explanations. Of course, I could GIS Pro. Since the census tract shapefiles
have relied on ethnographic studies and covered the entire U.S., I cross-compared
anecdotal evidence. Nevertheless, gen- with the city boundary of Chicago (also a
trification happening in the surrounding shapefile) and selected the tracts within the
neighborhoods complicates the process of boundary. Then, I joined my tables of data
tracking down indigenous residents, since with the designated census tract shape-
they might have already been displaced.
market,”2016; Rigolon & Németh, “We’re not in the business of housing: Environmental gentrification and the nonprofitization of
green infrastructure projects,” 2018.
15
169
files based on a system-generated series
number called GISJOIN. The series num-
“Gentrification
ber was different for every tract in every
year, so the process was about matching
helps to solidify
and merging. Once the data was joined, I
exported the attribute table to obtain files
an existing social
that I could work with to Microsoft Excel hierarchy to ensure
and Stata. The same process was repeated
for every year. I merged each year’s data- the supremacy of a
set in Microsoft Excel to create the master
dataset. I started by sorting tract num- dominant group.”
bers from the least to the greatest. Then, solute values in the dataset do not matter
I imported individual data to the main since the model only reflects changes over
dataset. Because the census tracts did not time, not the actual observed data points.
change from 2010–2017, I did not have to The difference-in-differences model
reallocate data entries. After completing records the average change over time in
the master dataset, I recoded the variable the treatment group (which is the census
names. Additionally, I used “Select by Loca- tracts around the 606 in this case) and the
tion” in ArcGis Pro to extract tracts within control group (the census tracts that are not
a mile radius of the 606. I then compared around the 606). It then calculates the effect
the exported census tracts with the master of the “treatment,” which is the 606 Bike
dataset. Lastly, I isolated and separated the Trail.16 One challenge when answering
treatment and control groups. my research question is the uncertainty of
Chicago is known for its distin- the causal relationships between variables.
guished neighborhoods, so census tracts For instance, although property values
provide the most detailed data available. went up around the 606 from 2015–2017,
This is useful when examining the nuances it was actually due to the overall rising in
within a neighborhood. However, census Chicago’s real estate market. However, the
block groups do not overlap perfectly with difference-in-differences method accounts
Chicago’s neighborhoods, which may re- for this uncertainty. It already considers
sult in reduced accuracy. the existing difference between the treat-
Model ment and control group, so the effect of
I built a linear regression model using the treatment can be isolated. According to
the difference-in-differences method to Angrist (2009), the most critical element
examine the relationship between the 606, to determine the validity of this model is
a massive public investment project, and whether it follows Parallel Trend assump-
gentrification on social composition and tion. Essentially, the treatment group and
housing prices, while considering the di- the control group would share a similar
vision between affluent and impoverished trend until the “treatment” is introduced,
areas. I chose this analysis method for its and the observed group will presumably
intuitive visualization and ability to obtain deviate away from the parallel path.
a causal relationship. In addition, the ab- The exact linear regression function
is given below:
16 Angrist & Pischke, Mostly harmless econometrics: An empiricist’s companion, 2009.
170
Yit = β0 + β1606i + β2postt + β3(606i × postt) + numerical form, which can then be con-
β4Wealthyi + β5(Wealthyi × postt) + β6(606i × sidered with inflation and interest rates.
Wealthyi) + β7(606i × postt× Wealthyi) + εit The social composition outcome
Yit is the tract-level outcome for tract i variable consisted of racial composition,
of time t. 606i is whether a tract contains the education attainment, residential stability,
606 Bike Trail. postt is whether an observa- and the percentage of renters. Racial com-
tion was made after the 606 has been built position differentiates between white and
(or after 2015, including 2015). Wealthyi non-white Latino individuals, to distin-
indicates whether a tract is considered guish the ethnic factors within racial com-
affluent (the criterion of being affluent is position. Educational attainment indicates
discussed below). β0 is a constant; β1 is the the percentage of people with a Bachelor’s
coefficient associated with 606i; β2 is the degree or higher in a census tract. Migra-
coefficient associated with postt; β3 is the tion is obtained by dividing the number
coefficient associated with the interaction of people who live in a different house
term between 606i and postt. β4 is the coef- than the previous year by the total popu-
ficient associated with Wealthyi; β5 is the lation in the census tract. It measures the
coefficient associated with the interaction residential mobility within a census tract.
term between Wealthyi and postt; β6 is the Percentage of renters examines the tenure
coefficient associated with the interaction status; it is simply the proportion between
term between Wealthyi and 606i; β7 is the the number of renter-occupied housings
coefficient associated with the interaction and the number of owner-occupied hous-
term between Wealthyi, postt, and 606i; εit is ings. The social composition variable is
the error term for tract i at time t. the percent change from 2010–2017, and
Variables the obtained value is multiplied by 100 in
order to intuitively evaluate the coefficient
Dependent Variables later acquired from the regression model.
In order to examine my hypothesis that By calculating the changes in percentage, I
the 606 Bike Trail public investment would be able to identify the trend, instead
project would indeed lead to gentrifi- of just observing the numerical value.
cation, the key dependent variables are
housing affordability and the social com- Independent Variable
position of the surrounding neighbor- My independent variable is the treatment
hoods. Housing affordability is measured of the 606 Bike Trail to the surrounding
with median property values. Since this census tracts. The difference-in-differ-
is already the median, it is resistant to ences method separates two groups into
outliers and extreme values. Thus, it treatment and control groups and observes
does not need to be weighted with the the changes in the groups over time. It not
number of properties in a census tract. only comprises the treatment and the time
Although the difference-in-differences variable but also their interaction term.
method is only interested in changes The independent variables therefore have
over time, the median property values to be dichotomous variables, also known
are not calculated into percent change. as indicator variables. First, I separated
When analyzed with the regression Chicago census tracts by dividing them
model, it will show the exact change in into two groups: the ones that are within
171
“ The 606 Bike Trail builds a social moat
allowing gentrifying areas to resist drastic
change over time.
a mile of the 606 Bike Trail and the ones variables to predict the dependent variables
”
that are not. The independent variable and extract the coefficients from the linear
is called “606_MILE.” In this way, I set regression model. The coefficients of the
up the difference between the treatment interaction terms will show the changes
and control group. As for the time series over time. Nonetheless, the “606_MILE”
variable, I set 2015 as the dividing point or “POST_MILE” variable is still crucial to
since it was the year when the bike trail set the base number. The base value will be
was made open to the public. The variable used to compare with the interaction term.
is named “POST_606.” Although Rigolon
and Németh (2018) show that the planning Discussion
process is crucial for the development of a By aggregating census data over eight
public investment project (in that case, I years, my findings suggest that property
would have set 2013, the year construction values and social composition are changing
began, as the dividing point),17 this project around the 606, but whether the agents of
measures the impact of the 606 Bike Trail these changes fit the initial impression
after it was built. is unclear. In addition, my findings show
My third hypothesis predicts that the that gentrification is actually creating
gentrification caused by the 606 would be more divisions between neighborhoods
greater in disinvested neighborhoods than around the 606, instead of exploiting the
in already-affluent neighborhoods. To test potential of further gentrifying disinvest-
this hypothesis, I divided census tracts into ed areas. The inequality is therefore ex-
“affluent” and “non-affluent” to create a acerbated, even though there would oth-
treatment of “non-affluency.” In order for erwise seem to be no significant changes
a tract to be considered “affluent,” a tract’s over the course of study timeframe.
median household income must be one Gentrification has always been con-
standard deviation above the average from sidered a mechanism to transform a neigh-
2010–2017 and vice versa. One caveat is borhood into a more homogenous, eco-
that inflation might affect the exact amount nomically well-developed, and culturally
of dollars, but the number is only marginal uniform place. The key characteristics of
and thus would not affect the results in a “change” is in the core of gentrification. In
statistically significant way. I then crossed this thesis project, however, the “change”
this independent variable with both the is actually resistant to other changes. For
606 and time variable, essentially creating instance, I hypothesized that housing af-
an interaction term that has all three inde- fordability would go down after the 606
pendent variables. was finished. While the housing price
The goal is to use these independent did not show any changes, housing was
17 Rigolon & Németh, “We’re not in the business of housing: Environmental gentrification and the nonprofitization of green
infrastructure projects,” 2018.
172
S Figure 2. Distribution of Dependent Variables in Chicago 2010 vs. 2017. The outlined census tracts
are the ones qualified as “close to the 606 Bike Trail” in this study. The bike trail itself is highlighted to
indicate its geographical location. As one can see, Chicago is segregated in terms of property values, racial
composition, and educational attainment. The northern region, especially the northeast side, has the most
of the expensive housing. They also have more white population and people with a Bachelor’s degree or
above. Renters and migration pattern, on the other hand, do not have a clear concentration in both 2010
and 2017. The overall difference between 2010 and 2017 in terms of these variables is slim. It is hard to
identify whether any major shifts had happened within in the study timeframe.
173
not more affordable when compared with tect the areas from, or at least slow down,
other real estate in Chicago. From this potential economic downturns.
perspective, I argue that the 606 Bike Trail On the other hand, it is possible that
builds a social moat allowing gentrifying the creation of the 606 Bike Trail was
areas to resist drastic change over time. spurred by the existing wealthy and ad-
One interesting note is on the social com- vantageous groups in the neighborhood.
position of the area surrounding the 606 As the literature mentions, gentrification
in 2010 (Figure 2). Residents were already can encourage more gentrification. Thus,
whiter, more educated, and younger (given having a public investment project that
that there were more renters) than other appeals to a certain lifestyle of a specif-
Chicago areas. Essentially, some parts of ic social group in an already-gentrified
the neighborhood were already gentrified, neighborhood would actually add fuel to
and having the 606 was just fortifying, if the gentrification engine. As a result, re-
not worsening, the existing inequality. gions with a higher population percentage
If a neighborhood is already affluent or of white people continue to expand their
gentrified, more development projects populations of white residents, whereas
solidify and preserve that status, blocking poor neighborhoods welcome Latinos and
any social groups that do not match with other people of color. Since educational
the area’s specific profile. At the same time, attainment is highly correlated with racial
the surrounding non-affluent areas may composition, the same logic can be applied
not necessarily undergo the gentrification here. The polarization, supplemented by
process due to such projects. They may low residential stability and high renting
not be converted or transformed into status, continues to engrain segregation
a homogenous space like their affluent into the neighborhood. In the 606, more
neighbors, as Glass (1964) and Zukin people come and go, and fewer people
(1987)18 suggest. The distinction between own a home. Thus, the demographic is
affluent and non-affluent areas would constantly changing, forcefully displacing
instead become more significant. the indigenous residents.
From another perspective, gentri- My findings adds a new piece of dis-
fication is not an endless journey but a cussion to the literature of gentrification
temporary phase. Neighborhoods that are by focusing on the resilience part of gen-
initially poor may present as gentrifiable trification. The project compares changes
because there is great potential for de- in two different groups longitudinally. Un-
velopment. Therefore, a massive public like other gentrification initiatives, the 606
investment project would likely drive up consists of transportation infrastructure,
property values and displace indigenous urban green space, and artwork. Because
residents. However, if the public project of these characteristics, the 606 should
is introduced in an already-gentrified be generating growth in the surrounding
neighborhood, then the neighborhood has neighborhood, based on what the litera-
surpassed the gentrifiable period. While ture shows. However, if one only looks at
the project may not necessarily continue to the descriptive results, one can easily iden-
increase living costs, it will certainly pro- tify that the numerical values do not show
18 Glass, London: Aspects of Change, 1964; Zukin, “Gentrification: Culture and capital in the urban core. Annual Review of Sociolo-
gy,”1987.
174
“In the modern hybrid form of gentrification, gentrification
no longer has a prominent effect on one single social factor.
Instead, it combines every aspect of development and
complicates the change process as investment projects build
on one another.”
a clear upscale growth. While other parts the planning process, and residents can
of the city are deteriorating or declining in reach compromises that serve the best in-
market value, the 606 public investment terests for all, ideally. Secondly, since the
project may not necessarily skyrocket bike trail is a public investment project,
neighborhood growth but maintain its the government has played an essential
situation. In other words, hybrid forms of role in everything from the planning phase
gentrification such as the 606 could increase to daily operations. Therefore, careful
segregation and attract a certain group of and comprehensive assessments from all
people. This is one of the last phases of perspectives (economic, urban planning,
gentrification, when there is enough of a sociological) must be considered in order
tax base to afford it. Although it may be in to reach a balance between equity and ef-
the ending stage, my difference-in-differ- ficiency. Lastly, the gap between affluent
ences regression model shows that changes and non-affluent tracts can be bridged
are still present. Since the project is imple- with appropriate incentives, such as hous-
mented by the advocates of gentrification, ing subsidies. Financial injection may
it excludes disadvantageous groups and start the long-stalling wheel of growth
continues to polarize the neighborhood. in a disinvested neighborhood, and this
On the contrary, a classic gentrification may initiate a positive feedback loop that
example (such as the one in Neo-Bohe- attracts more equitable and thoughtful de-
mia) may argue that gentrification is about velopments for indigenous residents.
attracting young, poor professionals, who
will slowly transform the neighborhood. Conclusion
In those cases, developments can be more This study aims to use the 606 Blooming-
single-function because they will spark dale Bike Trail to build on the relatively
large growth regardless. In the case of the new literature on rail-to-trail public in-
606, the project is more hybrid in terms vestment projects under the gentrification
of functionality and thus is more efficient umbrella. From a quantitative approach, I
in terms of space. collected census data on a mass scale that
The results also have several policy examines the city of Chicago in its entire-
implications. Local ownership is the key ty. By comparing the property values and
to combating gentrification. Although the the social composition in the surrounding
bike trail is currently overseen by The community between two timeframes,
Friends of the Bloomingdale Trail, the I found that the bike trail does have an
board members mostly share similar so- effect on social factors in those neighbor-
cial profiles. Having diversity in such an hoods. Moreover, gentrification is actually
organization will welcome more voices to creating more division and exacerbating
175
economic segregation in the community; nomic prosperity and equity is therefore
the wealthy areas only welcome a certain never-ending. Certainly, developments
type of resident while the impoverished are important for the locals’ livelihood
ones remain disinvested. and for sustainable growth. Nevertheless,
In the modern hybrid form of gen- the returned profits should not be exclud-
trification, gentrification no longer has a ed from the indigenous residents, as they
prominent effect on one single social fac- are the ones defining the authenticity of
tor. Instead, it combines every aspect of the community. Thus, it is important to
development and complicates the change conduct more research to encourage a
process as investment projects build on robust yet considerate economic develop-
one another. The debate between eco- ment in the future. ■
Bibliography
Bader, M., Krysan, M., Lee, B., Fire- Krysan M., Couper M.P., Farley, R., Smith, G., Duda, S., Lee, L.E., & Thomp-
baugh, G., Iceland, J., & Matthews, & Forman, T. (2009). Does race son, M. (2016). Measuring the im-
S. (2015). Community attraction and matter in neighborhood preferenc- pact of the 606: Understanding how
avoidance in chicago: What’s race es? Results from a video experi- a large public investment impacted
got to do with it? The ANNALS of ment. American Journal of Sociology. the surrounding housing market In-
the American Academy of Political and 115(2):527–59 stitute for Housing Studies at DePaul
Social Science, 660(1), 261-281. Lees, L., Slater, T., & Wyly, E. (2008). University. Retrieved from http://
Danley, S., & Weaver, R. (2018). Gentrification. London: Routledge. www.housingstudies.org/media/fil-
“They’re not building it for us”: Marcuse, P. (1985). Gentrification, er_public/2016/10/31/ihs_measur-
Displacement pressure, unwelcome- abandonment, and displacement: ing_the_impact_of_the_606.pdf
ness, and protesting neighborhood Connections, causes, and policy Zuk, M., Bierbaum, A., Chapple, K.,
investment. Societies, 8(3), 74. responses in New York City. Wash- Gorska, K., & Loukaitou-Sideris, A.
Glass, R.L. (1964). London: Aspects of ington University Journal of Urban and (2018). Gentrification, displacement,
Change. London: MacGibbon & Kee. Contemporary Law, 28, 195-248. and the role of public investment.
Hwang, J., & Sampson, R. J. (2014). Di- Rigolon, A., & Németh, J. (2018). We’re Journal of Planning Literature, 33(1),
vergent pathways of gentrification: not in the business of housing: 31-44.
Racial inequality and the social order Environmental gentrification and the Zukin, S. (1987). Gentrification: Culture
of renewal in Chicago neighbor- nonprofitization of green infrastruc- and capital in the urban core. Annual
hoods. American Sociological Review, ture projects. Cities, 81, 71-80. Review of Sociology, (13), 129-147.
79(4), 726–751.
176
Department of Anthropology
Faculty Adviser: Robert Launay
Hungry Thirsty Roots:

Imagining and Constructing
Ethnic Otherness in 1800s
England
by Zoe Miller
Abstract
My research is a historical ethnography of depictions of the racial
and cultural other in 19th century England. I was motivated to
do this research by my curiosity about how cultural and racial
otherness and national belonging were constructed historically.
Although my work does not directly relate to modern conceptions
of national belonging, I was inspired to do my research by seeing
ideas about this shift during my own lifetime. I researched depic-
tions of immigrants to England in the 1800s in various mediums.
Some of the materials I used, like Dracula and Goblin Market, are
presented as fiction by their authors, while others, like newspa-
per articles and the political cartoons of George Cruikshank, are
presented as nonfiction. From these materials, I draw two primary
conclusions. The first is that perceived racial difference is not
based fully on physical differences and instead is heavily influenced
by cultural factors. The second is that “foreignness” or racial dif-
ference is thought of as having a supernatural quality that presents
a social, sexual, and political threat. Not being “of the nation” is
construed as being inhuman, magical, and sinister. My work adds
to the anthropological understanding of national belonging and
racial identification that has already been studied in ethnographies,
like Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power by Laura Ann Stoler, and
has implications regarding modern modes of thought about immi-
grants, race, and citizenship.
177
“ What happens when the racial and cultural
other comes back home, in a time when clear
definitions of us and them are vital to the
functioning of the imperial state?
Introduction The scene of the strange, alien fruit
”
“Lie close,” Laura said,
market would have been recognizable
to British urban dwellers at the time of
Pricking up her golden head: Goblin Market’s publication. It wasn’t
“We must not look at goblin men, goblins that sold oranges on the street,
however;2 it was simply whichever group
We must not buy their fruits: of immigrants was newly-arrived and the
Who knows upon what soil they fed, poorest. During Rossetti’s lifetime, the
orange vendors in England shifted from
Their hungry thirsty roots?” being primarily comprised of Eastern
“Come buy,” call the goblins European Jews to newer, poorer waves of
Irish immigrants; the image of a fruit ven-
Hobbling down the glen. dor would have been synonymous with
poverty and racial otherness as it was de-
fined then. I seek to answer the following
“Oh,” cried Lizzie, “Laura, Laura, questions: What was happening culturally
You should not peep at goblin men.” with immigration in England at this time
that would prompt Goblin Market, and
So writes poet Christina Rossetti in
other similar works that depict inhuman,
her 1862 narrative poem Goblin Market. A
sexually dangerous immigrant figures, to
member of a family of artists at the center
be written? What is the context of this
of the nostalgic, pastoral Pre-Raphaelite
work? What did immigration threaten in
movement,1 Rossetti describes two young
the British imagination?
sisters being menaced by animal hybrid
I used media from the 1800s as data
“goblin merchant men,” who pressure
for this research. England at this point in
them in broken English to “come buy”
history was transforming into a different
their exotic fruits. One of the sisters,
kind of nation, one with industrialized
Laura, is tempted by the fruit and pays the
cities and growing immigrant popula-
goblins for it with a lock of her “golden”
tions.3 The media produced in England at
blonde hair with disastrous consequences.
this time — both “high art,” like literature
The process of eating the fruit takes on a
and poetry, and less elevated works, like
sexual, sensual quality in Rossetti’s writing,
political cartoons — reflected discomfort
and Laura subsequently becomes addicted
with the increased presence of non-En-
to the magical fruit as if it were a drug.
1 Roe, Dinah. The Pre-Raphaelites. The British Museum, 2014 https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-pre-ra-
phaelites
2 Endelman, Todd M. The Jews of Britain, 1656 to 2000, London: University of California Press Ltd, 2002
3 Williams, Raymond. The Country and The City. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973
178
W Figure 1. Heath, Henry. An Irish
Tilting Match, 1824. London: The
British Museum.
glish people in England. Some of these well as works on empire and race, in the
pieces of media express their views in very 19th century. I add to Ann Laura Stoler’s
explicit terms, like the racial caricatures work on the latter in Carnal Knowledge
of prolific 19th century cartoonist George and Imperial Power and Jeffrey Weinstock’s
Cruikshank. Other depictions of foreign analysis in Circumcising Dracula.
presences in England are more subtle,
measured, and ambiguous in nature, like Notes on Race and
the inhuman and predatory Eastern Euro- Difference
peans that populate Bram Stoker’s famous Before I delve into depictions of race, I
horror novel Dracula. would like to clarify what I am speaking
My method of analysis is historical about when I say race. I do not mean the
ethnography, with my analysis of the American conception of race, which is
primary materials informed by historical determined primarily by continent of or-
texts. igin and skin color, with a few exceptions
I argue that the combination of the for people with religious and cultural
industrialization of England, arrival of differences that are considered extreme
new waves of immigrants, and growth of enough to place them outside of the
a new eugenic model of race encouraged racial categories under which they might
by England’s imperialism abroad created otherwise fall. Sometimes, when we talk
widespread fears of immigration. These about racial differences in the modern-day
fears were primarily that (1) a culturally United States, we refer to these differenc-
and racially diverse England would be gen- es, which are constructed from religious
erally unpleasant or unsafe, (2) undesirable and cultural differences, as ethnicity, for
racial mixing would occur, and (3) a for- the sake of clarity. However, I found that
eign takeover of England’s government referring to some combinations of physical
would take place. I also argue that distin- and cultural difference as race, and others
guishing between “races” is in part based as ethnicity, raised more questions than it
upon culture rather than appearance. answered and obscured more than it clari-
My work builds upon previous schol- fied in my writing. Thus, for simplicity, all
arship on England and immigration, as of these differences are referred to as racial
179
W Figure 2. Rowlandson, Thomas. “Traffic,”
1791. New York City: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
differences. this, racial difference is depicted as existing

in an almost magical, almost demonic way;
The Social Construction of in the drawings of George Cruikshank as
Racial Markedness well as in works of fiction like Dracula and
Looking at art from this time period, I no- Goblin Market, interracial unions take on a
ticed that some European ethnicities seem demonic meaning.
to have been considered racially different
while others were not — and not in the way
Imperialism as a Background
one might expect. I define socially con- for Xenophobia
structed “racial difference” in this context Everything that took place culturally in
as being depicted both in caricature and England cannot be removed from En-
non-caricature images with specific, ex- gland’s presence abroad as an imperial
aggerated features that are different from power. Imperialism, by its nature, forces
those in depictions of English people. I no- the colonizing power to reckon with iden-
ticed that images of Scottish people in po- tity. For example, a phenomenon among
litical cartoons were drawn with smooth, Dutch colonists in Java in Stoler’s Carnal
unexaggerated features, while Irish people Knowledge and Imperial Power describes
in another political cartoon were depicted the need for a strict definition of race in
with ape-ish looking, lumpy faces. These order to avoid the lines of belonging being
two groups are very similar to each other blurred between self and non-self, nation
in appearance by the modern American and outsider. However, my research
view, but they are portrayed as completely engages with the flip side of this cultural
different from each other in the historical development. Instead of being concerned
English view. The racial markedness as- with differentiating between the self and
cribed to different racial groups does not the other abroad, my research is concerned
directly correlate to how different in ap- with how that differentiation occurs back
pearance I have been socialized to believe home. What happens when the racial and
various groups are, as the model of racial cultural other comes back home, in a time
difference is a different one. In addition to when clear definitions of us and them are
180
X Figure 3. Hogarth, William.
A Harlot’s Progress, 1732.
London: The British Museum.
vital to the functioning of the imperial depicts a more violent disruption than the
state? The belief that English people were annoying noise in Goblin Market; it depicts
inherently superior to the rest of the world a group of Irish women with apelike faces
was not just a feature of colonialism; the tossing a group of helpless British soldiers
whole psychology that made colonization up and down in the air (Figure 1). In this
morally tolerable to colonizers required model, a non-English populace living in
this belief. The pieces of writing and England makes law enforcement impossi-
illustrations that I have looked at are not ble. Or, if the cartoon does not declare it to
directly about colonialism, but colonialism be outright impossible, it at least suggests
contextualizes the racial worldview that that maintaining the peace requires more
these works express. force then is being used; the soldiers are
depicted as partially at fault for being in-
Public Space
One of the concerns expressed through “Dirty cartoons
English media during this time period is
that an immigrant presence in England that depict women
would lead to disorder or unrest or, if
not something that extreme, a general engaging in real,
reduction in the quality of life for English
people living among their non-English
unacceptable
neighbors. There are many depictions and
descriptions of rowdiness in the streets
interracial
and of bad noises and smells accompany- sex suggest a
ing an immigrant presence in England.
The early verses of Goblin Market invoke permanent tainting
this idea of immigrants creating disorder
and nuisance; the goblins are unpleasantly and ruining, with
noisy and harass the two girls in the poem
to “Come buy, come buy” the fruits they no magical fix.”
are vending. An 1824 political cartoon
181
effective and emasculated by the masculine and one of them accidentally sticks his
Irish women they encounter. hand through a hole in the crotch of a
pair of pants, which both illustrates the
Women And Men poor quality of their merchandise and
The second kind of concern expressed in transforms his hand into a phallic symbol
media from this time regarding immigra- (Figure 2). Their intrusion on the public
tion is the fear that immigrants will have space transforms into a sexual intrusion.
sex with British women, or vice versa. One The line between the threat to public
might think that fears about racial mixing space and the sexual or procreative threat
only really came along later in the 1800s, is also blurred in Rossetti’s Goblin Market.
when Francis Galton named the concept The goblins begin by just being a loud, un-
of eugenics and described race and herita- pleasant disruption of the public space, but
bility in a mix of scientific and pseudosci- they progress to being sexual figures when
entific terms,4 but this is not true. Galton’s Laura eats the fruit they offer her. The way
ideas about the importance of keeping she is described as she eats the fruit is un-
racial purity in England reflected already subtly linked to sex acts almost too explicit
established ideas; he simply restated and to quote; she sucks “their fruit globes fair
justified them using new terms. The con- or red” until “her lips were sore.”5
cept of eugenics was not invented out of Although Goblin Market is poetry and
thin air; it was formed and influenced by is thus generally considered a higher form
existing ideas of race, sex, and racial purity. of art than the explicit sexual cartoons that
This sexual, “race-mixing” fear I encountered in my research, beneath its
around immigration shares some overlap veneer of autumnal fantasy imagery, it
with the quality of life fear, as there are a is very much the same as the cruder, less
fair number of political cartoons where the elevated pieces of media. Laura engages in
two overlap. A 1791 print entitled Traffic socially unacceptable sex acts with socially
mixes these two themes by sneaking sexual unacceptable partners and afterwards is
imagery into a non-sexual scenario: Two considered a “ruined” woman.
caricatured Jewish used-clothes sellers Dracula’s relationship with the
thrust their wares upon a British maid, British women Lucy and Mina in Dracula
4 Galton, Francis. Hereditary Genius. 1892. London: MacMillan.
5 Rossetti, Christina. Goblin Market, 1862. London: Macmillan.
X Figure 4. Cruikshank, George,

"How Happy could I be With
Either" 1817-1819, London: The
British Museum.
182
X Figure 5. Cruikshank, George,
"Susanna and The Two Elders,"
1818, London: The British
Museum.
is depicted in a similar manner. In the like those in Goblin Market and Dracula.
passage in which we see him forcing Mina In one such cartoon, A Harlot’s Prog-
to drink his blood, the process of con- ress, we see a young British woman being
sumption through the mouth, as in Goblin permanently tainted by first having sex
Market, is used as a proxy for sex, only in with a foppish British Colonel and then
this case it is consumption of blood rather becoming a prostitute for a Jewish pimp,
than fruit. The Count “gripe[s] her by the whose cultural otherness is a centerpoint
back of the neck, forcing her face down on of the illustration (Figure 3). The scene of
his bosom,” which the novel characterizes the brothel is “exotic” looking; it includes
as having “a terrible resemblance to a child a monkey knocking over a table and a
forcing a kitten’s nose into a saucer of milk small Black boy dressed in a turban. In
to compel it to drink.”6 As in the case of many ways, it closely resembles the harem
Goblin Market, the transgressive eating of women the Count keeps in Dracula;
bears a resemblance to oral sex, and the there’s a recurring theme in this type of
woman involved is “ruined” afterward. work of an imagined Oriental East being
In these fantasy stories, the tainting depraved in ways that are unknown in the
of the women who engage in unaccept- West. The caption of A Harlot’s Progress
able unions is reversible through magical reads:
means. Laura’s wiser sister, Lizzie, goes Robbed of her Chasity and honest
back to the goblins and purchases more frame-The Col’el, Satan like, deceives
fruit, which reverts Laura to her previ- the Dame-But Beauty never wants
ously healthy state, and Mina is ultimately Vot’ries (sic?) yet; Now with a rich,
cured of her vampirism when Count gay Keeping Jew she’s met-Practiced
Dracula is killed. However, it is not totally in vice, the modest air no more is seen;
clear whether or not the real-life “tainting” she laughs at what she blushed before-
Spurns at her keeper with his jealous
of women is reversible. Dirty cartoons that
(Pale?); and snaps her fingers-Sir, I care
depict women engaging in real, unaccept-
not That-Thus when debauch’d the Sex
able interracial sex suggest a permanent forever burn in lawless fires; Virtue
tainting and ruining, with no magical fix know’s no return-Dishonor never
6 Stoker, Bram. Dracula, 1897. London: Constable & Robinson.
183
W Figure 6. Cruikshank,
George, "Object: The
new Union-Club.,"
1819, London: The
British Museum.
gives a second blow-And once a whore, nently socially-lowered sexual captive like
she ever more will be so. the woman in A Harlot’s Progress. Howev-
These pieces of media, both those er, he is held more personally responsible
that engage in magical metaphor and for having done something wrong. These
those that do not, seem to serve a double images often use the idea of having sex
purpose. They act overtly as warnings with Black women as a short hand for
and covertly as sources of titillation at the being immoral. Being not legally and cul-
taboos depicted. turally of-the-nation and being considered
racially different, while different in their
Men and Women implications in everyday life, are used to
Media where English men have unac- the same symbolic effect in these pieces.
ceptable sex with non-English, racially In one cartoon by caricaturist and
othered women (and sometimes, men) illustrator George Cruikshank, How Happy
have a different connotation than media I could be With Either, dated 1817–1819, a
in which the opposite occurs. When it is white cleric stands between two female
the man who is considered foreign and caricatures, one white and one Black, with
the woman who is English, the situation his eyes crossed outward to look at each of
is often non-consensual; the man, or the them at once (Figure 4). They seem to be
monster meant to represent a man, forces almost poised pre-threesome. The incor-
himself on her or pressures her by holding rect racial choice of partner is an indict-
financial power over her. The end result is ment of every aspect of the clergy in this
that the woman is “ruined,” permanently cartoon. In the gender-reversed scenarios
in non-magical depictions and temporarily with white English women and non-white
in fantastical depictions. or non-English men, the sexual encounter
When it is an English man who is is portrayed as an unfortunate thing that
performing the transgression, he is not happens to a girl or woman who otherwise
considered “ruined” in the same way. He is might have led a good, morally upstanding
not transformed or made sick in a magical life. When it is a white English man and
way like the women in Dracula or Goblin a non-English woman, the encounter is a
Market, and he does not become a perma- consequence of his amorality and not the
184
“Because popular understanding of immigration, race,
and citizenship remain relevant globally, understanding
how conceptions of these concepts were formed and
reproduced in past societies can help us understand
ourselves and our own societies.”
other way around. studying English language and culture so

Cruikshank seemed to be a fan of that he will not be considered inferior for
drawing these interracial threesomes. being foreign when he comes to England.
In another Cruikshank cartoon, Susanna Indeed, Dracula reveals that he wants to
and The Two Elders, a rabbi and a cleric maintain the social status he enjoyed as a
sandwich a Black woman, who appears nobleman in his native Transylvania when
to be a prostitute (Figure 5). The rabbi he arrives in England. He has “been so long
beckons to the cleric to join him. All three master that [he] would be master still.” He
are depicted with caricatured features. is not content to just come to England; he
There is a fascinating element to this wants to be socially superior to the native
cartoon that is not present in anything English, presumably with the same kind of
else I have come across; it directly shows a political power his nobility status affords
racial hierarchy between the three figures. him in Transylvania. This fear is also pres-
The rabbi character has a double identity ent in political cartoons.
of someone who is sexually transgressing
below his racial status, by having sex with T Figure 7. Anonymous. Object: The Jews
Triumph, and England's Fears, set forth ... /
the Black prostitute, and someone who is The Circumcised Gentiles; Or, A Journey to
below the racial status of the cleric, whom Jerusalem, 1753.
he is inviting to join him in a threesome.
Because he is framed as both convincing
someone to engage in transgressions and
someone who has been lured into racially
transgressive sex himself, he reveals his
status as intermediate between the Black
and cleric figures.
Politics
The final fear about immigration to En-
gland is the fear of England being ruled
by non-English people. Bram Stoker
introduces this fear at the very beginning
of Dracula when Johnathan Harker dis-
covers that the Count has a private library
of books about English law and culture.
When he asks the Count why he has
these books, Dracula responds that he is
185
the scene with the Black women, which
represents corruption and disorder, here,
the Christian British are emasculated or
dominated by Jews; the active parties in
the political and sexual domination are
different.
One such image, The Circumcised
Gentiles, or a Journey to Jerusalem, imagines
a newly circumcised, regretful British
member of government going on a hell-
ish pilgrimage to Jerusalem (Figure 7).
With him are two Jews, who speak in
caricatured, germanically-inflected broken
English: One is carrying a “circumcision
salve” and the other declares “me am
naturalize (to England),” and refers to the
circumcised British official as his “Bruder.”
They are depicted as having the helpless
S Figure 8. Lockwood, Frank. Lotinja quite/ English government under their thumb,
the gentleman at/the Hebrew Ball, 1847-1897.
London: The British Museum.
quite literally in a hold by the penis, which
allows them to immigrate and become
Sometimes Black people are the sub- naturalized as English citizens. Not only
ject of this type of political fearmongering. are they becoming citizens by force and
For example, one Cruikshank cartoon coercion, but they are also marked by their
depicts a group of members of the Union stereotypical speech as fundamentally for-
Club, a political gentleman’s club, engaged eign and unsuitable as citizens.
in an interracial flirtation with a group Another, subtler illustration of this
of Black women as other Black men and theme is an 1847 British cartoon, credited
women cause chaos in the background, to Sir Frank Lockwood, with an inscrip-
thus representing the disloyalty of the tion underneath reading, “Lotinja quite/
white figures in the images to the white, the gentleman at/the Hebrew Ball” (Figure
British people (Figure 6). In this case, the 8). The caricature is drawn with a smug,
Black caricatures are not representations sleepy look and is dressed in evening
of real people who were involved in the wear with cartoonish little “shining” lines
Union Club, but simply metaphors for emanating from a button of his waistcoat,
political corruption and chaos. as though mocking the fact that he is
However, while these Black carica- wearing a waistcoat. His expression, his
tures sometimes represent the political caricatured ugliness, and the ill fit of his
fear, the majority of illustrations that clothes indicates some contempt from
focus on this concern express a belief in Lockwood. The fact that he is dressed in
Jewish control over governmental figures. fancy, Western looking clothing is framed
Circumcision of Christian members of as a humorous, unsuccessful imitation of
the nobility and government is a com- the English upper class, much in the way
mon theme in these illustrations. Unlike Dracula is framed as imitating the English
186
in a threatening way. of art. Because popular understanding of
immigration, race, and citizenship remain
Conclusion relevant globally, understanding how con-
In these pieces of media, race and national ceptions of these concepts were formed
belonging take on qualities of good and and reproduced in past societies can help
evil, magical and mundane. National us understand ourselves and our own
concerns regarding who is acceptable societies.
as a citizen are embodied through both
the highbrow and lowbrow media of the Acknowledgements
time, and the particular fears related to My sincerest thanks to Professor Robert
immigration are very specifically named Launay, Professor Ana Aparicio, and
and shown through these various forms Mariam Taher. ■
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187
188 FEATURE
INTERVIEW WITH
MORGAN
GASS
By Catherine Campusano and Clare Zhang
Morgan Gass is a third-year student majoring in environmental engineering and

minoring in environmental policy. She is a sustainability intern under Civil and
Environmental Engineering Professor Charles Dowding. In this capacity, she works
on the sustainability section of the Winnetka Futures 2040 Plan, a village in Cook
County, Illinois.
Most local governments draw up comprehensive plans for the future, detailing how
they intend to manage their municipality’s resources in the long term. As a result of
the COVID-19 pandemic, the Winnetka government put their 2040 Plan on hold.
In 2018, Winnetka adopted the Greenest Region Compact 2 (GRC2), an agreement
to work towards sustainability goals to improve quality of life for residents. As of
February 2021, the GRC2 has been adopted by 133 communities across Chicagoland.
Its companion document, the GRC Framework, provides tools to help communities
reach the goals of the Compact.
The prominence of environmental issues in the last two decades led the Winnetka
Environmental and Forestry Commission to add a sustainability section to the
Plan for the first time. Gass’s job is to build the section from the ground up by
the Framework’s strategies to Winnetka-specific situations. She intends to finish
writing in spring 2021.
[This interview has been edited for brevity and clarity.]
FEATURE 189
What is the 2040 Comprehensive compact plan, a document to educate the
Plan of Winnetka? Winnetka village on current environmental
initiatives towards sustainability and how
Essentially, it’s a collection of [Winnetka] they can help to work towards achieving
city goals and targets for 2040. I’m working those goals.
on the Greenest Region Compact 2 (GRC2)
Framework with various targets and goals What does the typical day look like
for sustainability. in terms of doing that work?
Do many cities have sustainability It involves a lot of reading, parsing
comprehensive plans? documents, and reorganization. I take a
grand scheme of 100+ goals and separate
Both Morton Grove [a village in Cook them into the different categories. I go
County] and Evanston have sustainability to the Winnetka Forest Commission
comprehensive plans that I’m partially and different environmental committees’
basing mine off of, and I know a lot meetings for the village to better
of cities have [agreed] to following understand the Winnetka-specific goals.
the GRC2. I would say that municipal Mostly, I do a lot of research into documents
governments have been gearing more about specific Winnetka data, information,
towards environmentalism, especially with and goals. For example, I had to research
a lot of the [Environmental Protection Winnetka beaches and how they close
Agency] pushbacks that happened during very, very often due to bacteria. I explained
the Trump administration. the issue and potential solutions for the
Winnetka resident that would be reading
How did you get involved with this
the document. It’s a lot of compiling and
project? organizing of information to hopefully get
I heard about it through the Society of a single document that people can read with
Environmental Engineers. There was a all the initiatives and goals that need to be
posting to work with a professor in the achieved by 2035, and an index to show the
department on the sustainability plan for different city mandates on what has and has
Winnetka. I have a background in policy, not been achieved.
as well, so I was interested in working with
more city mandates and initiatives. Has your work been impacted by
the COVID-19 pandemic?
What are the main responsibilities of
I actually got this position post-pandemic.
your work as a sustainability intern? I started working with [the Civil and
I read over the GRC2 document, which Environmental Engineering Department]
has all of their goals and mandates. I also partially because of the pandemic — they
read over city documents regarding what planned to have it done by 2020, but the
those specific goals are, why they’re put in pandemic put them a bit behind. I can’t
place, what initiatives are implemented to physically go to city meetings because
achieve them, and what has already been those aren’t being held. Since the village
achieved. I organize those goals, initiatives, meetings aren’t being held in person, a lot
and Winnetka-specific information into a of residents of the city can’t really go either.
190 FEATURE
It makes it harder to connect between the insight into what you might want to
different groups virtually as opposed to in do in the future?
person. But other than that, my work is
very online-based, so that part would’ve Oh, absolutely. I’ve been leaning a lot
been the same either way. more into the environmental policy side of
things, especially for other internships and
What has been the most rewarding jobs I’m applying for. Having to read over
part of your research experience? official documents, organize information,
email different contacts, and go to
Seeing how far the village has come and meetings is invaluable. A lot of engineering
seeing what initiatives have already been is numbers- and models-based, and this
put into place. The GRC2 has an entire research has been really interesting because
section focused on the fact that Winnetka it has allowed me more creative freedom,
has already implemented recycling in all of finding the easiest way to communicate
its municipal buildings, or their plans for to the members of Winnetka how there’s
green energy within their buses. I think it’s bacteria in their beaches, or storm water
really interesting seeing all the work that’s overflow in their systems. You start with
already been done because when you’re in something really complicated and make it
the environmental circuit, sometimes it seem really simple, so people can change
feels like you fixate on the worst, and you their behavior and understand what’s going
feel like nothing’s being done. But when on around them. And the community
you can see others accomplishing their aspect — I’ve been getting really interested
goals, it makes you more optimistic for the in potentially working with sustainability
future. Seeing everything that has already within communities, and I think that
been achieved has made it feel really working so closely with Winnetka and
worthwhile. creating a tangible sustainability document
are definitely beneficial, and I would like to
What skills have you gained continue doing similar work in the future.
through doing research?
In a really broad sense, time management. Do you have any advice for
I do all my work independently, I set my undergraduates who want to get
own hours, I have to really make sure involved in research?
that I have time dedicated to work and Reach out to faculty. They are so helpful
staying focused. Also, reading professional and they really do want students who are
documents has been really helpful in interested in their research to get involved.
becoming familiar with how city councils I would recommend thinking of a general
release their mandates or initiatives. [This idea that you want to work in, going to the
has also] exposed [me] to writings and different research departments, finding
publications that get an idea across as someone who’s researching something
efficiently as possible. similar, and emailing them. … Even if you
don’t think you’re qualified or that you don’t
Has this experience given you any have the experience, just email and ask. ■
FEATURE 191
Department of Psychology
Faculty Adviser: Eli Finkel
Knowing What You Want:

Sexual Self-Insight and Attachment
Style in Romantic Relationships
by Kaylee Guajardo
Abstract
Positive sexual experiences and knowing oneself are beneficial to
romantic relationships. I investigated the intersection of these two
domains by developing a new construct, sexual self-insight: clear
knowledge of what one enjoys sexually. In my study, I examined
sexual self-insight within the context of romantic relationships, in
relation to sexual self-pleasure, sexual communication satisfaction,
attachment style, and various relationship outcomes through an
online survey. Findings suggest that sexual self-insight is negatively
associated with insecure attachment, and sexual self-insight mediates
the negative association between insecure attachments and relation-
ship outcomes. As a novel construct, sexual self-insight opens new
doors to understanding the importance of knowing ourselves in a
sexual light.
Background Furthermore, higher frequency of sexual

The benefits of positive sexual experiences activity is associated with greater cogni-
go well beyond the bedroom. In the long- tive functioning later in life and greater
2
term, sexual satisfaction is positively asso- well-being, although the benefits peak
ciated with greater subjective well-being.1 at a frequency of once per week. Sexual
3
1 Buczak-Stec, E., König, H.-H., & Hajek, A. (2019). The link between sexual satisfaction and subjective well-being: A longitudinal
perspective based on the German Ageing Survey. Quality of Life Research: An International Journal of Quality of Life Aspects of Treat-
ment, Care & Rehabilitation, 28(11), 3025–3035.
2 Wright, H., & Jenks, R. A. (2016). Sex on the brain! Associations between sexual activity and cognitive function in older age.
Age and Ageing, 45, 313–317; Wright, H., Jenks, R. A., & Demeyere, N. (2019). Frequent sexual activity predicts specific cognitive
abilities in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 74(1), 47–51.
3 Muise, A., Schimmack, U., & Impett, E. A. (2016). Sexual frequency predicts greater well-being, but more is not always better.
Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(4), 295–302.
192
enjoyment is also positively linked with self-insight within the context of romantic
self-esteem, autonomy, and empathy.4 relationships — particularly in regards to
Furthermore, positive sexual experiences anxious and avoidant attachment.
are particularly beneficial in the context of Self-Concept Clarity
romantic relationships; sexual interactions Having a clear sense of self is crucial;
with a partner elevate mood and reduce people who have a clear and coherent
stress,5 positive sexual experiences are understanding of who they are experience
tied to greater physical, mental, and social more positive life outcomes. Specifically,
health in adolescents,6 and sexual satisfac- self-concept clarity captures the subjective
tion is heavily correlated with self-reports clarity, coherence, and stability of one’s
of greater health and relationship happi-
self-belief.9 Self-concept clarity is associat-
ness/satisfaction.7 ed with positive outcomes for individuals,
Positive sexual experiences and sexual such as higher self-esteem, more active
communication go hand in hand; greater coping styles, and greater psychological
amounts of sexual communication are as- well-being.10 Moreover, self-concept clari-
sociated with increased orgasm frequency ty is positively associated with relationship
in women, as well as greater relationship satisfaction, commitment, and use of
and sexual satisfaction for all genders.8 positive dyadic coping behaviors within
However, in order to communicate what a relationship,11 as well as sexual well-be-
we want, we must first know what we like. ing in women.12 Self-concept clarity is
Research has yet to examine individuals’ therefore beneficial in achieving not only
clear knowledge of what they enjoy sex- a happy life, but also a successful romantic
ually. In the present research, I propose a relationship.
novel construct, sexual self-insight, which Moreover, positive sexual interac-
describes the extent to which people have tions are strongly associated with thriv-
a clear sense of what they enjoy sexual- ing romantic relationships. This begs the
ly and is a potential precursor for sexual question: could clearly knowing what one
communication. I also investigate sexual
4 Galinsky, A. M., & Sonenstein, F. L. (2011). The association between developmental assets and sexual enjoyment among emerg-
ing adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(6), 610–615.
5 Burleson, M. H., Trevathan, W. R., & Todd, M. (2007). In the mood for love or vice versa? Exploring the relations among sexual
activity, physical affection, affect and stress in the daily lives of mid-aged women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(3), 357–368.
6 Hensel, D. J., Nance, J., & Fortenberry, J. D. (2016). The Association Between Sexual Health and Physical, Mental, and Social
Health in Adolescent Women. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(4), 416-421.
7 Fisher, W., Donahue, K., Long, J., Heiman, J., Rosen, R., & Sand, M. (2015). Individual and partner correlates of sexual satisfac-
tion and relationship happiness in midlife couples: Dyadic analysis of the international survey of relationships. Archives of Sexual
Behavior, 44(6), 1609–1620; Laumann, E. O., Paik, A., Glasser, D. B., Kang, J.-H., Wang, T., Levinson, B., Moreira, E. D., Jr., Nico-
losi, A., & Gingell, C. (2006). A Cross-National Study of Subjective Sexual Well-Being Among Older Women and Men: Findings
From the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35(2), 145–161.
8 Jones, A. C., Robinson, W. D., & Seedall, R. B. (2018). The role of sexual communication in couples’ sexual outcomes: A dyadic
path analysis. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 44(4), 606–623; Blunt-Vinti, H., Jozkowski, K. N., & Hunt, M. (2019). Show or
tell? Does verbal and/or nonverbal sexual communication matter for sexual satisfaction? Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy; Cupach,
W. R., & Comstock, J. (1990). Satisfaction with Sexual Communication in Marriage: Links to Sexual Satisfaction and Dyadic Ad-
justment. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(2), 179–186.
9 Campbell, J. D., Trapnell, P. D., Heine, S. J., Katz, I. M., Lavallee, L. F., Lehman, D. R. (1996). Self-Concept Clarity: Measure-
ment, Personality Correlates, and Cultural Boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(1), 141-156.
10 Campbell, J. D. (1990). Self-esteem and clarity of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(3), 538–549;
Smith, M., Wethington, E., & Zhan, G. (1996). Self-concept clarity and preferred coping styles. Journal of Personality, 64(2),
407–434; Wu, J. (2012). Self-concept clarity of Hong Kong university students: Measurement and relations to psychological well
being. In K. Gana (Ed.), Psychology of self-concept. (pp. 21–35).
11 Lewandowski, Nardone, & Raines, 2010; McIntyre, Mattingly, & Lewandowski, 2017; Parise, Pagani, Donato, & Sedikides, 2019
12 Hucker, Mussap, & McCabe 2010
193
“Those who had engaged in higher frequencies of sexual
self-pleasure prior to their current relationship had more
sexual self-insight, which in turn was associated with
higher sexual communication satisfaction.”
enjoys sexually play an essential role in cul- Attachment Style and Sexual Self-Insight
tivating a successful romantic relationship? Attachment theory15 outlines how humans
The present research introduces the novel emotionally attach or bond to a caregiver
construct of sexual self-insight: having a when young and how this attachment
clear and coherent sense of what one enjoys shapes our long-term perceptions of and
sexually. I propose that sexual self-insight interactions with others. Styles of attach-
is distinct from self-concept clarity — one ment, which are not isolated to childhood
can subjectively know who they are but be and extend well into adulthood, have a sig-
unfamiliar with what they enjoy sexually. nificant impact on romantic relationships16
Sexual self-insight likely comes from and exist on two orthogonal dimensions:
sexual experiences with partners, but anxiety and avoidance. The anxious di-
for individuals in their first relationship, mension captures how one views the self
sexual self-pleasure and exploration may on a spectrum from positive to negative;
be a source of sexual self-insight. Indeed, this positive to negative view of the self
masturbation and sexual self-pleasure are corresponds with both low versus high
an important component of developing attachment anxiety and low versus high
healthy sexuality.13 One study found that attachment avoidance. Conversely, the
young adult women who had experienced avoidant dimension encapsulates how one
orgasm through masturbation had greater views others on a spectrum from positive
sexual communication and sexual agency to negative.
compared to women who had not done High attachment anxiety is associated
so.14 Thus, both masturbation and sexual with a fear of abandonment, while high
experience with a partner may play a role attachment avoidance is associated with a
in understanding our sexual selves and ac- fear of intimacy.17 Individuals who are anx-
quiring sexual self-insight. iously or avoidantly attached often struggle
However, developing sexual self-in- in their relationships. People with these
sight is not limited to certain sexual ex- attachment styles are significantly less sat-
periences and behaviors. In fact, certain isfied and committed in their relationships,
groups of people may particularly struggle tend to have dysfunctional communica-
with sexual self-insight, such as those with tion, and are more likely to divorce.18
anxious or avoidant attachment. Sex is also more complicated for those
with anxious or avoidant attachment. On
13 Smith, Rosenthal, & Reicher, 1996; Hogarth & Ingham, 2009
14 Horne & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2005
15 Bowlby, 1969; 1973; 1980
16 Hazan & Shaver, 1987
17 Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Shaver & Mikulincer, 2012
18 Li & Chan, 2012; Diamond, Brimhall, & Elliot, 2018; Candel & Turliuc, 2019; Domingue & Mollen, 2009; McNelis & Segrin,
2019
194
“
Those with more sexual self-insight
had greater relationship satisfaction
and commitment.
the bright side, frequent and more satisfy- sight, which in turn will be positively
”
ing sex may hinder some of the negative associated with greater sexual commu-
relationship outcomes that are typically nication satisfaction in a relationship.
associated with these attachment styles.19 Hypothesis 2a: Insecure attachment
That being said, insecurely-attached indi- (avoidance and anxiety) will be nega-
viduals are more likely to have sex for rea- tively associated with sexual self-insight.
sons that supersede sexual pleasure. Specif- Hypothesis 2b: The tendency for
ically, individuals with anxious attachment avoidant and anxious individuals to
report having sex to reduce insecurity, have lower sexual self-insight will in
while individuals with attachment avoid- turn be associated with less relationship
ance report having sex to impress peers.20 satisfaction and commitment.
Additionally, adults with high attachment I tested these hypotheses by conduct-
anxiety or avoidance experience less sexual ing an online survey of individuals who
satisfaction and less sexual communication were currently in their first romantic rela-
in their relationships.21 tionship. In the survey, I investigated how
Perhaps some of the challenges that sexual self-insight is related to pre-rela-
anxious and avoidant individuals face tionship self-pleasure frequency and sexual
could be due to a lack of insight into what communication (H1), as well as anxious
they enjoy sexually. Past research has found and avoidant attachment (H2a) and vari-
that both anxious and avoidant individuals ous relationship outcomes (H2b).
have lower self-concept clarity.22 I hypoth-
esize that they may also have lower sexual Methods
self-insight, which may in turn be associat- This study was an initial investigation of
ed with lower relationship satisfaction and how sexual self-insight develops and its
commitment. possible links to attachment insecurity.
Hypotheses and Research Overview Specifically, I investigated two hypotheses:
The present research examines the novel (H1) whether sexual self-insight mediates
construct of sexual self-insight and its the association between pre-relationship
links with attachment and relationship sexual self-pleasure frequency and sexual
outcomes. My hypotheses are as follows: communication satisfaction, and (H2a
Hypothesis 1: Higher frequencies of and 2b) whether sexual self-insight me-
sexual self-pleasure prior to a relation- diates the association between insecure
ship will be linked with sexual self-in- attachment (avoidant or anxious) and
19 Little, McNulty, & Russell 2010
20 Schachner & Shaver, 2004
21 Bennett, LoPresti, & Denes, 2019; Timm & Keiley, 2011; Khoury & Findlay, 2014; Davis et al., 2006
22 Wu, 2009; Emery, Gardner, Carswell, & Finkel, 2018
195
T Figure 1. Sexual self-insight mediating the association between pre-relationship solitary sexual pleasure frequency and
sexual communication satisfaction in Study 1; **p < .001; *p < .05.
.13* .59**
.14*
T Figure 2. Sexual self-insight mediating the association between anxious attachment and sexual relationship commitment in
Study 1; **p < .001; *p < .05.
-.61** .34**
-.45** Relationship
Anxious Attachment
(-.24**) Commitment
T Figure 3. Sexual self-insight mediating the association between avoidant attachment and sexual relationship satisfaction in
Study 1; **p < .001; *p < .05.
-.58** -.15*
-.55** Relationship
Avoidant Attachment
(-.64**) Satisfaction
196
relationship outcomes (satisfaction or tion. Participants reported their satisfac-
commitment). tion with their sexual communication with
their romantic partner26 (22 items; α = .94;
Participants and Procedure
M = 5.17, SD = 1.14; e.g., “I tell my partner
Participants were 26623 individuals who
when I am especially sexually satisfied”).
were in their first romantic relationship
Attachment style. Participants re-
(54.9% male, 41.7% female, 3.4% non-bi-
ported their level of attachment anxiety27
nary; 79.7% heterosexual, 12.0% bisexual,
(6 items; α = .83; M = 3.54, SD = 1.41; e.g.,
3.8% gay/lesbian, 3.8% asexual, .7% other;
“I need a lot of reassurance that I am loved
age M = 29.9, SD = 7.01). The partici-
by my partner”) and avoidance28 (6 items; α
pants were recruited through Amazon’s
Mechanical Turk (MTurk), and all par- = .83; M = 2.69, SD = 1.24; e.g., “I am ner-
vous when partners get too close to me”).
ticipants were located within the United
Relationship commitment. Partic-
States at the time of the study. Participants
ipants reported their commitment to their
were screened through an initial ques-
current relationship29 (7 items; α = .88; M
tionnaire to make sure they fit the study
= 5.63, SD = 1.08; e.g., “I am committed
criteria. They then completed the survey
to maintaining my relationship with my
in a single session.
partner”).
Measures Relationship satisfaction. Partici-
All items were assessed on a 7-point Likert pants indicated their current relationship
scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly satisfaction30 (5 items; α = .90; M = 5.64,
agree) unless indicated otherwise. SD = 1.13; e.g., “Our relationship makes me
Sexual self-insight. To measure very happy”).
sexual self-insight, I modified the self-con-
Results
cept clarity scale24 (12 items, assessed on a
I standardized all variables (M = 0, SD = 1)
5-point Likert scale from 1 = strongly dis-
prior to analysis. See Table 1 for associa-
agree to 5 = strongly agree; α = .92, M = 2.85,
tions between all variables.
SD = .803). See Appendix 1 for full list of
First, I investigated H1 by analyzing
items.
the associations between sexual self-in-
Sexual desire. Participants reported
sight, pre-relationship sexual self-pleasure
their average sexual self-pleasure frequency
frequency, and sexual communication
prior to their relationship (M = 4.47, SD =
satisfaction. In line with H1, sexual self-in-
1.94), and responded on an 8-point Likert
sight was positively associated with pre-re-
scale from 1 (Not at all) to 8 (More than once
lationship sexual self-pleasure frequency (r
a day). See Appendix 2 for all additional,
= .13, p = .028) and sexual communication
altered desire items from the Sexual Desire
satisfaction (r = .60, p < .001). People who
Inventory-2.25
had engaged in more sexual self-pleasure
Sexual communication satisfac-
23 I initially received responses from 284 participants. However, 18 participants did not complete the survey, so I excluded them
from analyses.
24 Campbell et al. 1996
25 Spector, Carey, & Steinberg, 1996
26 Wheeless et al. 1984
27 Wei, Russell, Mallinckrodt, & Vogel 2007
28 Wei et al. 2007
29 Rusbult, Martz, & Agnew 1998
30 Rusbult, Martz, & Agnew 1998
197
T Table 1: Bivariate correlations of variables from Study 1; **p < .001; *p < .05.
Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Sexual
— .60** -.58** -.61** .13* .49** .22**
Self-Insight
2. Sexual
Communication — -.76** -.51** .08 .65** .54**
Satisfaction
3. Avoidant
— .58** -.10 -.69** -.55**
attachment
4. Anxious
— -.04 -.45** -.22**
attachment
5. Solitary sexual
— .16 .11
frequency
6. Relationship
— .58**
commitment
7. Relationship
—
satisfaction
prior to their current relationship also had sight, anxious and avoidant attachment
more sexual self-insight and sexual com- style, and relationship commitment and
munication satisfaction in their present satisfaction. Consistent with H2a, sexual
relationship. Next, I conducted mediation self-insight was negatively associated with
analysis using model 4 of PROCESS, a anxious (r = -.61, p < .001) and avoidant at-
macro for a data-analysis software called tachment (r = -.58, p < .001), and positively
the Statistical Package for the Social Sci- associated with relationship commitment
ences (SPSS), used as a tool for regression (r = .49, p < .001) and satisfaction (r = .22,
path analysis.31 In support of H1, sexual p < .001). Individuals who had anxious or
self-insight mediated the association be- avoidant attachment style had less sexual
tween pre-relationship sexual self-plea- self-insight, and individuals who had more
sure frequency and sexual communication sexual self-insight had greater relationship
satisfaction (Figure 1). Participants who satisfaction and commitment. Next, I con-
reported higher frequencies of sexual ducted a mediation analysis to first examine
self-pleasure prior to their current rela- whether sexual self-insight mediated the
tionship scored higher on sexual self-in- association between anxious attachment
sight, which in turn was associated with and relationship commitment (H2b). In
greater sexual communication satisfaction support of H2b, individuals who reported
in their present relationship. higher anxious attachment had less sexual
Next, I tested H2a by first analyzing self-insight, which in turn was associated
the associations between sexual self-in- with less relationship commitment (Figure
31 Hayes, 2013
198
2). I then conducted a mediation analysis mediate the association between anxious
to determine whether sexual self-insight attachment and relationship satisfaction,
mediated the association between anxious nor the association between avoidant
attachment and relationship satisfaction attachment and relationship commitment.
(H2b); however, I did not find a significant
indirect effect (indirect effect = -.08; 95% General Discussion
CI = -.19, .01). In light of the established positive out-
I then conducted parallel analyses for comes of sexual experiences and knowing
avoidant attachment. Specifically, I ana- oneself in romantic relationships,33 the
lyzed whether sexual self-insight mediated present research investigated the intersec-
the association between avoidant attach- tion of these domains. Namely, I investi-
ment and relationship satisfaction (H2b). gated the novel construct of sexual self-in-
In line with H2b, individuals who reported sight — knowing what one enjoys sexually
higher avoidant attachment had less sexual — in the context of romantic relationships.
self-insight, which in turn was associated I anticipated that individuals may gain
with less relationship satisfaction (Figure sexual self-insight through solitary sexual
3).32 I did not find that sexual self-insight experiences, such as masturbation, prior
mediated the association between avoidant to their first relationship. Thus, I hypoth-
attachment and relationship commitment esized that for individuals in their first
(H3b; indirect effect = -.07; 95% CI = -.15, romantic relationship, higher frequencies
.01). of pre-relationship self-pleasure would be
Discussion positively associated with sexual self-in-
This study revealed that pre-relationship sight, which in turn would be associated
sexual self-pleasure is positively associated with more sexual communication satis-
with sexual self-insight, which in turn is faction. Additionally, I hypothesized that
associated with greater sexual commu- those with greater anxious and avoidant
nication satisfaction (H1). Furthermore, attachment would have less sexual self-in-
anxious and avoidant attachment had sight. I also predicted that the tendency for
significantly less sexual self-insight, thus avoidant and anxious individuals to have
supporting H2a. Additionally, individuals less sexual self-insight would in turn be as-
with anxious attachment had lower sexual sociated with less relationship satisfaction
self-insight, which in turn was associated and commitment.
with less relationship commitment. Indi- In this research, I examined sexual
viduals with avoidant attachment also had self-insight in those that were currently
lower sexual self-insight, which in turn in their first romantic relationship. For
was associated with less relationship satis- these individuals, I found that those who
faction. Therefore, H2b was only partially had engaged in higher frequencies of sex-
supported, as sexual self-insight did not ual self-pleasure prior to their current
relationship had more sexual self-insight,
32 In this mediation analysis, mediator sexual self-insight was negatively associated with relationship satisfaction. This finding con-
tradicts my hypothesis that sexual self-insight would positively predict relationship satisfaction, which serves as the mediator for
the avoidant attachment and relationship satisfaction pathway. I suspect this is a case of the suppressor effect (Cohen et al., 2003),
which would have been caused by introducing avoidant attachment into the model, which is robustly negatively associated with
relationship satisfaction (Table 1). This suspicion is further supported by the significant, positive bivariate correlation between
sexual self-insight and relationship satisfaction in my data.
33 Fisher et al. 2015; Lewandowski et al., 2010; McIntyre et al., 2017; Parise et al., 2019
199
which in turn was associated with higher correlative and do not imply causality,
sexual communication satisfaction (H1). I these associations nonetheless suggest that
also found that those with more anxious sexual self-pleasure may serve as a means
or avoidant attachment had less sexual to understand one’s sexual self, which in
self-insight (H2a) and that those with more turn may lead to a higher frequency and
sexual self-insight had greater relationship quality sexual communication. In the
satisfaction and commitment. For individ- future, researchers could conduct exper-
uals with anxious attachment, this lower imental studies in order to determine if a
sexual self-insight was negatively associ- causal relationship exists between sexual
ated with relationship commitment. Ad- self-pleasure and sexual self-insight, as
ditionally, those with avoidant attachment well as sexual self-insight and positive
had less sexual self-insight, which in turn sexual communication. If more sexual
was negatively associated with relationship self-pleasure is determined to increase sex-
satisfaction (H2b). ual self-insight, which in turn is found to
increase positive sexual communication,
Implications and Future Directions
These findings highlight the promising this could influence sex education curric-
potential of this new construct, sexual ulums and how they discuss masturbation.
self-insight, in the realm of romantic Strengths and Limitations
relationships. My findings highlight a new This research developed a novel construct,
domain with which insecurely attached sexual self-insight, and highlighted the po-
individuals struggle: knowledge of what tential importance of knowing what one
they enjoy sexually. Specifically, I con- enjoys sexually in the context of romantic
sistently found that people with anxious relationships — a construct that, to my
or avoidant attachment have less sexual knowledge, has yet to be investigated in
self-insight. Past research has found that the existing literature.
individuals with insecure attachment An additional strength of this re-
often have sex for reasons that supersede search is that this study included partic-
experiencing sexual pleasure. People with ipants who were not exclusively college
anxious attachment often have sex out of samples, a common limitation in psycho-
insecurity, while those with avoidant at- logical research. That being said, the study
tachment pursue sex to gain social status.34 sample was relatively homogenous, in that
Thus, my findings bring to light a possible they were mostly young adults, white,
product of this phenomenon: a lack of Christian, and heterosexual. In the future,
clear insight into what they enjoy sexually, I aspire to have a more diverse, repre-
or sexual self-insight. sentative sample in understanding sexual
Finally, I found that those who en- self-insight, particularly in regards to age
gaged in higher frequencies of sexual and sexual orientation.
self-pleasure prior to their first romantic My research is further limited by
relationship had more sexual self-insight, several factors. Because this research is ex-
which in turn was associated with more clusively cross-sectional and correlational,
sexual communication satisfaction in said I cannot draw causal conclusions. I intend
relationship. While these findings are only to investigate whether causation underlies
34 Schachner et al., 2004
200
these findings in future research, either While only associative research was con-
through longitudinal or experimental ducted in this study, sexual self-insight
research. may be an underlying phenomenon as to
Finally, one major measurement why those with insecure attachment face
limitation in this study was that I did not challenges personally, romantically, and
ask participants whether they were gen- sexually. Future research should examine
erally sexually active with their partner. whether a causal relationship exists in
By failing to do this, questions inquiring this respect. Until then, I hope that my
about participants’ sexual communication research provides a springboard for future
satisfaction were inapplicable. I hope to research endeavors to expand our knowl-
replicate these findings in a future study edge on the importance of knowing our
with a sample of participants who are all sexual selves.
sexually active.
Acknowledgements
Conclusion
This study investigates the novel con- Research presented here was supported
struct, sexual self-insight, both in the by Northwestern University’s Summer
context of attachment style and romantic Undergraduate Research Grant during the
relationships. Self-concept clarity and pos- Summer of 2019.
itive sexual experiences are both associated First, I want to thank Dr. Eli Fin-
with greater well-being35 and higher qual- kel for supporting and overseeing this
ity romantic relationships.36 My research research as my faculty thesis advisor, Dr.
suggests that to know oneself sexually may Wendi Gardner as my second reader, and
also have positive associations in romantic Dr. Daniel Molden for the honor’s thesis
relationships. Additionally, my findings instruction.
suggest that sexual self-insight may come Last but never least, I would like to
harder to some than others — particu- thank Dr. Lydia Emery for serving as my
larly those with insecure attachment. mentor throughout this research process.
Unfortunately, individuals with insecure Without her sincere guidance, insight, and
attachment have less self-concept clarity37 support, this research would not have been
and less satisfactory sexual experiences.38 possible. ■
35 Wu, 2012; Buczek-Stec et al., 2019

36 Lewandowski et al., 2010; McIntyre et al., 2017; Fisher et al. 2015; Laumann et al., 2006
37 Emery at al., 2016; Wu, 2009
38 Davis et al., 2006; Khoury et al., 2014
201
Appendices (1-2)
Appendix 1
Sexual Self-Insight Items1
1. My beliefs about what sexual activities I enjoy often conflict with one another.
2. On one day I might have one opinion of what I enjoy sexually (eg., rough sex, certain sexual
stimulation, etc.), but on another day I might have a different opinion.
3. It is often hard for me to make up my mind about sexual activities, because I don’t really know what
I enjoy sexually.
4. I spend a lot of time wondering about what I enjoy sexually.
5. Sometimes I feel that what I enjoy sexually is not what it appears to be.
6. When I think about the sexual activities I have pursued in the past, I’m not sure what I really like.
7. I seldom experience conflict between the different sexual aspects I enjoy.
8. Sometimes I think others know what they enjoy sexually better than I know what I enjoy sexually.
9. My beliefs about what activities I enjoy sexually seem to change frequently.
10. If I were asked to describe what I enjoy sexually, my description might end up being different from
one day to another day.
11. Even if I wanted to, I don’t think I would tell someone what I really enjoy sexually.
12. In general, I have a clear sense of what I enjoy sexually.
1 All items are reverse scored, except items 7 and 12.
Appendix 2
Sexual Desire Altered Items
1. During the last month, how often would you have liked to engage in sexual activities with a partner
(for example, touching each other’s genitals, intercourse, etc.)?
2. During the last month, how often did you engage in sexual activities with a partner (for example,
touching each other’s genitals, intercourse, etc.)?
3. During the last month, how often have you had sexual thoughts involving a partner?
4. When you have sexual thoughts how strong is your desire to engage in sexual behavior with your
partner?
5. When you first see an attractive person, how strong is your sexual desire?
6. When you spend time with an attractive person, how strong is your sexual desire?
7. When you are in romantic situations (such as a candle lit dinner, a walk on the beach, etc.), how
strong is your sexual desire?
8. How strong is your desire to engage in sexual activity with a partner?
9. How important is it for you to fulfill your sexual desire through activity with a partner?
10. Prior to your current relationship, when you had sexual thoughts how strong was your desire to
engage in sexual behavior with yourself?
11. Prior to your relationship with your significant other, over the course of a month on average, how
often would you have LIKED to behave sexually by yourself (for example, masturbating, touching
your genitals, etc.)?
12. Prior to your relationship with your significant other, over the course of a month on average, how
often DID you behave sexually by yourself (for example, masturbating, touching your genitals, etc.)?
13. Prior to your relationship, generally how strong was your desire to engage in sexual behavior by
yourself?
14. Prior to your relationship, how important was it for you to fulfill your desires to behave sexually by
yourself?
15. How much do you agree with this statement: Prior to my current relationship, I would often enjoy
behaving sexually by myself.
202
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2020
Research
Award
Winners
Sigma Xi Undergraduate Research Awards
The Northwestern University chapter of Sigma Xi, the Scientific Research Honor
Society, partners with the Office of Undergraduate Research to fund awards at the Uni-
versity’s annual Undergraduate Research and Arts Exposition (Expo). Expo is the largest
student conference on campus and focuses on original research and creative work by
Northwestern’s undergraduates across all disciplines.
The $500 Sigma Xi Best Overall Poster Presentation Award was presented to Sophia
Liu for her project entitled “Exploring the Effects of Phonetic Overlap and Background
Noise on Incremental Processing in Children.”
The $500 Sigma Xi Best Overall Expo Oral Presentation Award was presented to
Julia Dierksheide for her presentation entitled “Exploring the Detection of Missing Tis-
sue in Planarian Regeneration.”`
Sigma Xi Best Overall Expo Oral Presentation Award
recipient at the Northwestern Undergraduate
Research Expo
Julia Dierksheide
Presentation Title: Exploring the Detection of Missing
Tissue in Planarian Regeneration
Julia Dierksheide is a recent graduate of the Integrated Science Program, with a

second major in Biological Sciences. She became interested in research early on, in her
Northwestern career and joined the Petersen Lab at the beginning of her sophomore
year. Julia has since had the privilege of working with professor Petersen and his amazing
team of graduate students on the project she presented at the expo. Julia plans to contin-
ue to pursue a career in research, and started a PhD in Biology at MIT in fall 2020.
Julia’s expo project focused on regeneration, a specialized healing process that re-
places lost and damaged tissue with fully functional tissue. In the Petersen Lab, research-
ers use planaria, small aquatic flatworms capable of amazing feats of regeneration, as
model organisms to dissect the molecular mechanisms that control this process. Julia’s
work focused on the molecular differences between “simple” wound healing and regen-
eration, digging into how planaria sense and respond to different injuries.
206
Sigma Xi Best Overall Poster Presentation Award
recipient at the Northwestern Undergraduate
Research Expo
Sophia Liu
Project Title: Exploring the Effects of Phonetic Overlap and
Background Noise on Incremental Processing in Children
Sophia Liu is a senior from Birmingham, Alabama majoring in neuroscience and

minoring in global health studies. She first learned of the field of communication sci-
ences and disorders in a freshman seminar, “Language and Childhood.” As an immigrant
who grew up speaking both Mandarin and English, Sophia is interested in how children
with different experiences acquire language and use it to communicate with the world.
As a result, she joined the Hearing and Language Lab (HLL) to learn about how people’s
experience with sound affects their ability to understand and learn language. Over the
past two years in HLL, Sophia helped research how children learn new words, and how
children with and without hearing loss process phonologically-competing words.
In the summer of 2018, Sophia received a Northwestern Summer Undergraduate
Research Grant (SURG) for her independent project to study the effects of phonetic
overlap and background noise on incremental processing in children. After assisting a
graduate mentor with her study on phonologically competing words, Sophia became
interested in how children process rhyming words, since they exist in nursery rhymes,
songs, and poems. Moreover, since communication rarely occurs in perfect silence, So-
phia wanted to explore the effects of background noise. Her study found little to no effect
on how children process different rhyming words. However, data suggests background
noise can slow down children’s processing ability by making it harder to listen to the
target speech.
207
About the
CONTRIBUTORS
Andrew Wayne
Riley Ceperich
John Sweeney
Simone Laszuk
Yu Wang
Joy Hsu
Zoe Miller
Taris Hoffman
Kaylee Guajardo
Meghan Considine
Jade Davis
Meilynn Shi
Andrew Wayne–
Opinions in Flux: An Exploration of the Perceptions of
Concussions in Youth Sports
Andrew Wayne (’20) majored in social policy. opportunity to conduct a project about head
He is currently studying at the Kellogg School of trauma in youth sporting leagues.
Management (‘21) where he is pursuing a Master
of Science in management studies. Where do you see the future direction
of this work leading? How might future
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? researchers build on your work, or what
is left to discover in this field?
Participation in youth sports carries risk of
head trauma as millions of sports-related Much is still left to be known regarding head
concussions occur each year. This research trauma and the effects it may have later in
was designed to examine the decision-making life. Thus, the potential effects of playing
processes that go into enrolling a child youth sports may not be fully understood. In
in youth sports, as well as the established addition, the data from the project suggests
frameworks for understanding youth sport that many misconceptions exist amongst
involvement. In addition, the research aimed parents who have a child that actively
to highlight current narratives that affect participates in a youth sport. Therefore,
parental decision making and how parents research may need to be done to see how
weigh the positives and negatives associated these misconceptions are acquired and how
with a child’s involvement in a sport. they can be rectified.
How did you come to your research topic? Where are you heading to after
graduation?
I have always been fascinated about the
connections between head trauma and sports I am currently at Kellogg School of
in the contemporary world. In 2019, I worked Management where I am a candidate for a
in the department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Master of Science in Management Studies
Sports Medicine at Ann & Robert H. Lurie degree.
Children’s Hospital. Here, I was provided the
209
Riley Ceperich–
Designing Equity: Stakeholders’ Perceptions of an
Equity Initiative in a California School District
Riley Ceperich (’20) graduated with a bachelor’s filled a gap in the literature.
degree in both sociology and economics. She is
currently working for Cynthia E. Coburn as a Where do you see the future direction
research assistant and is involved with several of this work leading? How might future
other educational research projects. Ceperich is researchers build on your work, or what
planning to pursue a doctorate in sociology. is left to discover in this field?
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? This research could be furthered to

understand how principals who are
My research topic is race inequity in committed to equity goals approach equity
education. I studied stakeholder perceptions reforms that they view as poorly designed and
of an equity reform in two elementary schools what effective principals can do to implement
in California with the stated goal of increasing equity even with challenges from the
the educational achievement of Black district. Researchers could also explore how
students. perceptions of equity initiatives change over
time and how approaches to and the success
How did you come to your research topic? of equity reforms has changed and continues
I became interested in educational inequity to change in different political climates.
after taking the Sociology class: School and Where are you heading to after
Society. After I began working as a research graduation?
assistant in Cynthia Coburn’s lab in SESP, I
had access to data sets and asked around for I am currently working as a research assistant
what I could study related to equity. There on several Education related research projects
were interviews with stakeholders of an with professors at Northwestern and CU
equity initiative and so I chose to study those Boulder. I am applying to Sociology PhD
perceptions - also finding that this project programs with a 2021-2022 start date.
210
John Sweeney–
John Sweeney (’20) majored in African American would be gained by a rigorous investigation
Studies. They owe all their gratitude to the and thinking with of these authors.
wonderful people they met at Northwestern, most
profoundly their fiancé Leilani. Additionally, they Where do you see the future direction
must deeply thank Dr. Jeniffer Nash, Dr. Marquis of this work leading? How might future
Bey, Dr. Alvin Tillery, and Dr. José Medina. researchers build on your work, or what
In a nutshell, what is your research topic?
I think the future direction of this work
My research topic explores the concept of leads to a richer field of political ontology
‘political ontology’ from a post-Heideggerian, in all fields that use the concept of political
specifically starting from the emerging ontology from a perspective that is highly
literature by Black scholars who identify as critical of modernity and colonialism. Future
Black nihilists or afropessimists who use researcher could build on my work to bring
the term, and engaging their brilliant work into conversations the deeply rich fields, such
in a conversation with other critical theory as Black feminism, that do not explicitly use
thinkers who use political ontology, such as the language/grammar of post-Heideggerian
Oliver Marchart, Fred Moten, and Enrique political ontology.
Dussel.
Where are you heading to after
How did you come to your research topic? graduation?
I came to my research topic by engaging I am heading into political work to attempt to
deeply with all of these thinkers, and assist in the creation of a better world. I just
struggling to understand myself what ‘political finished working for the Biden campaign in
ontology’ truly means, and wondering what Wisconsin to defeat Trump.
211
Simone Laszuk–
Swimming Upstream:
Decreasing Salmon
Populations in the
Columbia River Basin
through Infrastructure
and its Impacts on
Indigenous Welfare
As an undergraduate, Simone Laszuk (’20) in major cities and major areas across the
studied anthropology, environmental policy, world. Additionally, I have always loved fish
and sustainability. She truly found a home at so on a trip to Seattle, my family and I stopped
Northwestern in the anthropology department, as at the Ballard Locks to watch the salmon cross
well as the admissions office where she worked. a “salmon ladder” and it really led me down
Laszuk will be sticking around to pursue a a rabbit hole of reading about how these
master’s in sustainability next year and hopes to man-made changes to natural landscapes have
take her passion for the environment and work in caused so much tension on this population.
corporate social responsibility, using money and
influence to make a tangible change in our world! Where do you see the future direction
of this work leading? How might future
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? researchers build on your work, or what
I focused on the Yakama Tribe in Washington
state and their connection to salmon, both I am taking my studies in the direction of
as a critical resource and as an important sustainability, so this was a really exciting
cultural figure. I then analyzed their access to way to bridge my studies in college with the
this critical resource and how infrastructure, policy and practice of environmentalism
namely culverts, were creating barriers for that I hope to go into. Ideally, I would love
salmon to mate and for indigenous people to future researchers to keep highlighting cases
access them appropriately. By synthesizing of environmental injustices with easy fixes,
historical resources and legal documents, I to put pressure on city and state officials
dove into this environmental injustice case to address the problems of inequality and
study happening in Washington. environmental racism.
graduation?
Throughout my studies, I have been
interested in the intersection of Anthropology I will be continuing my studies at
and Environmental Policy, specifically in Northwestern, pursuing my Masters in
terms of environmental justice. I think that Energy and Sustainability in the ISEN
most people think that happens so far away department.
(out of sight, out of mind) but it is happening
212
Yu Wang–
Developments or
Division? The Role
Large Public Investment
Project Plays in
Gentrification: A Case
Study on Chicago’s 606
Yu Wang (’20) majored in sociology and minored passion in studying social functions and
in general music. Coming to Northwestern inequality in society, which has prompted
University as an international student from me to take several courses related to urban
Taiwan, Wang found the uniqueness of his politics, urban sociology and gentrification.
identity when doing research in sociology. Eventually, I used the opportunity of a
Additionally, his passion in urban developments thesis project to dive deeper into the topic
has inspired him to investigate inequality and of inequality in American cities. Instead of
gentrification in American cities. focusing on a more individual level, I took
a more macro approach in the research by
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? looking at census data in Chicago.
My research looks at the relationship Where do you see the future direction
between public investment projects and of this work leading? How might future
gentrification in Chicago neighborhoods researchers build on your work, or what
by doing a case stydy on the newly built is left to discover in this field?
elevated bike trail “the 606 Bloomingdale Bike
Trail”. In other words, I looked at whether Developments in American cities would
government-financed development would continue to polarize economic and social
decrease housing affordability and change benefits for their residents, and the form
social compositions in both developed and of developments would take a more hybrid
developing neighborhoods. The research approach, meaning that these projects would
takes a quantitative approach by aggregating not only serve a single function (such as a bike
census data from 2010 to 2017 in different trail would not only be for transportation
Chicago census tracts. The findings suggest but also for recreational purposes).
that the investment project, in this case, Therefore, different research methods, from
actually solidifies the inequality gap, ethnographic studies to data modeling to in-
instead of assimilating the underdeveloped depth survey results, must be implemented to
neighborhoods into a more middle-class one. get a more holistic view on this topic.
graduation?
Growing up in a populated urban area, I
naturally developed my interests in urban I will be a one year M.S. student at Kellogg for
plannings and organizations in cities. After Management Studies.
coming to Northwestern, I realized my
213
Joy Hsu–
Stories of Regret in
Late Midlife and their
Relation to Psychosocial
Adaptation
Joy Hsu (’20) is currently a Post Baccalaureate How did you come to your research topic?
Research Fellow in the Technological Innovations
for Inclusive Learning and Teaching Lab at I am interested in social, personality, and
Northwestern University. She is a recent graduate developmental psychology, which is why I
who double majored in communication studies chose to work with Professor McAdams, who
and psychology, with a certificate in integrated is the leading expert in narrative identity.
marketing communications and a module in I talked with him about several idea I had
health communications. She first got involved regarding research topics, and he gave me
in research through the Early Lab Research feedback and let me know what sources of
Experience Award, which allowed her to work as data were feasible for me to use.
a research assistant in the Health Communication Where do you see the future direction
Interaction Design Lab. As a co-recipient of the of this work leading? How might future
Hunt Award for the best honors thesis in the researchers build on your work, or what
Psychology Department, she is incredibly thankful is left to discover in this field?
for all the wonderful opportunities N.U. has
provided for her academic journey thus far. Some Future researchers should explore direction
of her favorite memories at N.U. include the time of causality between the associations found in
she has spent with Asian American InterVarsity this study, as it is currently uncertain whether
and WildCHAT. low psychosocial adaptation leads to regret
stories with lower regret resolution, or vice
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? versa. These findings may inform clinical
My research topic is about regret in late research in developing interventions for late
midlife adults, both in describing the content to midlife adults struggling with psychosocial
of regrets and the ways in which these adaption.
regret manifests. The study I conducted Where are you heading to after
also investigates how these adults make graduation?
sense of and cope with their regrets, as well
as how their narration of regret relates I have just started a position as Lab Manager
to psychosocial adaptation, assessed as a in the Technological Innovations for Inclusive
combination of generativity, ego-integrity, Learning and Teaching Lab at Northwestern.
and self-reported well-being.
214
Zoe Miller–
Hungry Thirsty Roots:
Imagining and
Constructing Ethnic
Otherness in 1800s
England
Zoe Miller (’20) is a writer for multiple forms How did you come to your research topic?
from New York. She graduated from the School
of Communication with majors in cultural I’ve always loved fantasy and horror literature
anthropology and radio/television/film. Her and I’ve had an awareness for a long time that
focus in cultural anthropology was primarily some of my favorite classic pieces in these
writing, art, and religion in Europe and the genres contained racial and/or cultural coding
United States. She achieved departmental honors of their supernatural threats. This inspired
in anthropology and is a member of Lambda me to look more closely into these kinds of
Pi Eta. Miller’s anthropology research won the depictions. I was advised to narrow the scope
Oswald Werner Prize for Distinguished Honors of my research to England specifically so that
Thesis in Anthropology and the People’s Choice I’d be fluent in the language of the material I
at the 2020 Undergraduate Research and Art was working with. I chose the time period just
Expo. During her time at Northwestern, she was by seeing when the pieces of most interest to
a city reporter and opinion contributor at the me were published.
Daily Northwestern. Recently, her short play Where do you see the future direction
“The Hamster” was produced at the Naked Angels of this work leading? How might future
Young Writers Festival. researchers build on your work, or what
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? is left to discover in this field?
My research is a historical ethnography of I think the cultural processes of nation

depictions of the ethnic and cultural other in building and determining insider-hood
19th century England. Some of the materials verses outsider-hood are always continuing
I used are presented as fictional by their around us as history progresses. As long as
authors, like Dracula and Goblin Market, nations, culture and race exist there will be
while others are presented as nonfiction, like new things to discover about this subject. My
newspaper articles and the political cartoons research also really only covers a little, scant
of George Cruikshank. From these materials piece of culture and is my own interpretation
I draw two primary conclusions. The first is of what that culture really means. There’s
that perceived racial difference is not based almost endless more ground that could be
fully on physical differences and instead is covered and other interpretations that could
heavily influenced by cultural factors. The be formed.
second is that “foreignness” or racial difference Where are you heading to after
is thought of as having a supernatural quality graduation?
that presents a social, sexual, and political
threat. Not being “of the nation” is construed I’ve been doing some writing.
as being inhuman, magical and sinister.
215
Taris Hoffman–
“Territory Folks Should Stick Together”: The Role of
the Law and the “Other” in Daniel Fish’s Oklahoma!
Taris Hoffman (’20) is a proud graduate of repercussions of violence towards the “other”
Northwestern University, where she majored and how legal proceedings are represented in
in theatre and legal studies with a minor contemporary pop culture.
in dance. She graduated with honors, the
Departmental Excellence Award in theatre, How did you come to your research topic?
and the Distinguished Honors Thesis Prize and Originally, I planned to expand on a previous
Departmental Honors in legal studies. During her project and write my thesis on the impact
time at N.U., Hoffman was a member of Griffin’s of the death penalty on the victims’ families,
Tale Repertory Theatre Company, a writer specifically in relationship to their media
for Sherman Ave, a DJ for WNUR-FM, and a portrayal. On the first day of the legal studies
member of Lambda Pi Eta. Post-grad, Hoffman thesis seminar, Professor Grisinger told us
is pursuing her dream of being a Chicago-based all that we had to write about something
artist. She is an exclusively-signed stage and screen we were passionate about or else we would
actor with BMG Talent Group, a copywriter for never be able to make it through our
an online toolkit in partnership with The Talk respective theses. I remember my jaw actually
documentary, and a tour coordinator for Redfin dropping open because in that moment I
Real Estate. She is looking forward to assistant realized the thing I currently could not stop
directing American Idiot under N.U. professor thinking about, an astounding production of
Halena Kays at the American Blues Theater next Oklahoma! I had seen a few days ago in New
summer. York, had a large legal component and layered
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? political messaging. The idea of combining
my two majors (theatre and legal studies) and
My thesis analyzes the role of the law in the chance to closely analyze a piece of art that
Daniel Fish’s Oklahoma! in order to examine was personally inspiring to me was instantly
how the production portrays the legal irresistible. The rest is history.
216
Where do you see the future direction for a more thoughtful and progressive theater
of this work leading? How might future industry. As a director, actor, and playwright,
researchers build on your work, or what it encourages me to honor tradition while
is left to discover in this field? still interrogating uncomfortable conventions
and reframing them to be more relevant
Daniel Fish’s Oklahoma! is subtextually rich to contemporary society. This production
and layers in arguments about privilege in never strays away from difficult questions,
relationship to gender, age, and physical therefore furthering the conversation instead
ableness, not just race and class. Continued of maintaining the status quo.
analysis of this play would yield more in-depth
conclusions about how privilege functions in Where are you heading to after
relationship to the law holistically. Putting graduation?
this revival in conversation more closely
with the original Broadway production, in Post-grad I am pursuing my dream of being
addition to the 1955 film, would also allow a Chicago-based artist. I am an exclusively
for conclusions that speak more to the signed stage and screen actor with BMG
original intention of the text that Fish then Talent Group, a copywriter for an online
intentionally subverted. Similarly, additional toolkit in partnership with The Talk
historical legal information, such as a data set documentary, and a tour coordinator for
of murder cases in the setting and era of the Redfin Real Estate. In my spare time, I keep
play and during the years of each iteration the writing skills I honed in creating my
(1943, 1955, and 2018), would allow more thesis sharp by playwriting and tutoring
nuanced conclusions to be made about the high schoolers in essay writing. When the
power of the influence of historical law versus pandemic ends, I am looking forward to
the contemporary cultural context on Fish’s assistant directing American Idiot at the
directorial choices. American Blues Theater, taking dance classes
in person, and creating immersive art.
I believe that Fish’s Oklahoma! is the model
217
Kaylee Guajardo–
Knowing What You Want: Sexual Self-Insight and
Attachment Style in Romantic Relationships
Kaylee Guajardo (’20) double majored in How did you come to your research topic?
psychology and statistics and minored in religious
studies. She volunteered as a research assistant for I served as one of Northwestern’s Sexual
the past year with Dr. Eli J. Finkel’s RAMLAB, Health and Assault Peer Educators (SHAPE)
and still attends the biweekly lab meetings. When for my latter 2.5 years at NU. Part of SHAPE’s
she isn’t doing psychology of sexuality research, mission is to educate people on the absolute
she enjoys all activities outdoors, crocheting necessity of consent throughout sexual
blankets for the kittens she fosters, or making a encounters. Ideally, consent should be
mess in the kitchen. This winter, you can catch enthusiastic, verbal sexual communication
Guajardo breathing in the cold mountain air, a about what one wants or does not want
huge smile across her face, as a ski instructor in sexually with their partner(s). Through
Big Sky, Mont.! my peer education experiences, I began to
wonder what elements may allow sexual
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? communication to come “easier” for some
than others. In other words what behavior
My research investigates how sexual self- or experiences may precede more frequent
pleasure, sexual communication, and and satisfying sexual communication between
attachment style correlate, and how knowing partners? Through reflection on past
what one enjoys sexually mediates the conversations and studies I learned about in
relationship of these variables in the context Dr. Finkel’s Science of Relationships course,
of romantic relationships for those that are I realized that in order to communicate what
sexually active. one wants sexually, they must first know what
218
they want. Thus, with the help and support sexual self-insight, or knowing what
of my mentor, Lydia Emery, I developed one enjoys sexually, plays a causal role in
the novel construct, sexual self-insight, predicting higher usage and quality of sexual
to measure how well one knows themself communication. Additionally, if more sexual
sexually. self-pleasure predicts greater sexual self-
insight, which in turn predicts more sexual
Where do you see the future direction communication, this may influence how we
of this work leading? How might future discuss masturbation in sexual education.
researchers build on your work, or what
is left to discover in this field? Where are you heading to after
graduation?
First of all, all the research executed in my
senior thesis is purely correlational. Thus, I am exploring my options with a gap year
ideally future researchers can use this study (or two) before heading to graduate school to
as a springboard to understand whether pursue a PhD.
219
Meghan Considine–
Knowledge and Wonder’s Place, Policy, and Publics:
Kerry James Marshall and the Henry E. Legler
Librarys Percent-for-Art Commisssion
Meghan Clare Considine (’20) studies the characterized, but also the ways in which an
relationships between art, politics, and power in object — and its attending social, political, and
American cities from 1945 to the present. She aesthetic forces —’s instrumentalization by
graduated with honors in performance studies and and within networks of capital can change the
art history. Considine was a 2019–2020 Franke ontological status of an object itself.
Undergraduate Fellow at the Kaplan Institute and
has worked on curatorial and engagement projects How did you come to your research topic?
at the Mary and Leigh Block Museum of Art, the The controversial proposed sale of the mural
Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago, and the in question received nationwide coverage
Museum of Fine Arts Boston. This year, she is the in Fall 2018. It coincided with my taking a
O’Brien Curatorial Fellow at the University of very influential course, “Chicago 1968” with
Minnesota Twin Cities’s Weisman Art Museum. Rebecca Zorach, who would become one of
In fall 2021 she will enter the Williams College my two advisors. In that course I focused on
and Clark Art Institute Graduate Program in the the city’s rich community mural movement
History of Art. of the 1960s and 70s, and its subsequent
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? institutionalization by museums. I was curious
about this event as an inheritor of that legacy.
I offer a theoretically-inflected historiography I also spent two quarters as a curatorial
of a critical, but overlooked, site-specific intern at the MCA Chicago where I had the
work by Kerry James Marshall. I argue that opportunity to learn more about the 2016
his mural illustrates not only the limits of the exhibition “Kerry James Marshall: Mastry,”
manner Marshall’s practice and is typically which also happened to be the first museum
220
show I saw as a Northwestern undergraduate. public spaces around American cities.
Where do you see the future direction Where are you heading to after
of this work leading? How might future graduation?
researchers build on your work, or what
is left to discover in this field? I am currently working in Minneapolis as
the 2020-2021 O’Brien curatorial fellow at
I am always encouraging people invested in the University of Minnesota’s Frederick R.
images and the ways they reveal and index Weisman Art Museum. I have also accepted
power relations to look beyond museums, a fellowship to pursue a Master’s degree in
galleries, and archives. Future researchers the Williams College/ Clark Art Institute
might then, as I metion in the paper, consider Graduate Program in the History of Art
conducting a study of the vast and under- beginning in Autumn 2021.
researched collections housed in libraries and
221
Jade Davis–
Networking for Gender Justice
Jade Davis (’20) graduated with a double major affecting women in many careers today,
in sociology and art theory and practice. Her which are often a greater research focus than
first encounter with research was through the the initial “breakthrough” point. Specifically,
Posner Research Fellowship in 2017, where I researched how women’s art organizations
she worked with her future advisor, professor contributed to this breakthrough for
Anthony Chen, on his research of the origins women into the art scene. I found that
of race-conscious affirmative action programs these organizations were significant to
in selective universities. She has since received Chicago’s women artists during this time
a Summer Undergraduate Research Grant and period in that they provided a space to make
a Weinberg Research Grant for her research connections with other women artists well as
on Pilsen’s muralist community. She was also a opportunities to network with Chicago’s art
Research Fellow Mentor for the Posner Fellowship community.
and the Summer Undergraduate Research Grant.
Her research experiences have culminated with How did you come to your research topic?
her sociology honors thesis on women’s arts As someone who is passionate about both
organizations in Chicago in the 1970s through sociology and the arts, I’m interested in the
the 1990s. Davis is currently attending Adler intersection of art and social change. My
University in Chicago for a dual-degree Master of previous research focused on the history of
Arts program in counseling and art therapy. muralists in the neighborhood of Pilsen, but
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? I quickly realized that the mural movement
had a distinct lack of female artists, and the
My research focuses on Chicago’s female women who were in the movement faced
artists in the 1970s through the 1990s, a discrimination throughout their careers. After
time in which the city’s primarily male art this realization, I began learning more about
scene became more amenable to women. Chicago’s women’s art history, and I was
This paved the way for later struggles for intrigued by the art spaces that female artists
equitable representation, pay, and other issues created in response to the art community.
222
These organizations became my new focus for artists alluded to important aspects of their
this research. careers which could all use future research,
such as the rifts between women who had
Where do you see the future direction families and lived in the suburbs and women
of this work leading? How might future who lived alone in the city, or the reality
researchers build on your work, or what that most of the organizations were nearly
is left to discover in this field? completely made of white women, many of
Women’s arts organizations have provided whom were middle-class or wealthy.
spaces for female artists for decades across the Where are you heading to after
United States and would all benefit from in- graduation?
depth research on their histories and impact.
Within Chicago’s women’s art history, future As of August, I am studying at Adler
research could be done on those who were University in Chicago in their dual-degree
not involved in women’s art organizations to Master’s program in Counseling and Art
compare their experiences, difficulties, and Therapy.
successes. In addition, my interviews with the
223
Meilynn Shi–
A Reckoning with Medicine’s Past
Meilynn Shi (’20) recently graduated with a major Where do you see the future direction
in American studies and a minor in political of this work leading? How might future
science. She was part of the Honors Program in researchers build on your work, or what
Medical Education (HPME) and is currently a is left to discover in this field?
first-year medical student at the Feinberg School
of Medicine. As a medical student, I have been thinking
deeply about how I hope to contribute to
In a nutshell, what is your research topic? the profession, and I can’t help but feel that
there is no other time like now for us to
My thesis studied the 1975 physician’s strike look back at medicine’s past and reflect upon
at Cook County Hospital as a case study of its histories—both the triumphant and the
some of the political, ethical, and historical painful—before we can truly move forward.
structures that have shaped medicine into The 1975 strike is but one of those histories.
what it is today.
Where are you heading to after
How did you come to your research topic? graduation?
I came across the strike while going I’m currently a first-year medical student at
through the Quentin Young Papers at the Feinberg.
Northwestern University Archives.
224
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The staff of the Northwestern Undergraduate Research

Journal would like to express our appreciation for all those

We would like to thank Morton Schapiro, President of

We are especially appreciative of our faculty adviser,

Cover by Abby Hsiao and Sarah Tani.

28 African American Studies

Performance Studies, Art History

contemporary world compared to figures diagnosed concussion as a result of partic-

Perceived safety of primary

Effect of popular media on

Effect of social media on

Effect of child’s desires on

Effect of perceived safety on

Effect of popular media on

Effect of social media on

Effect of child’s desires on

Perceived safety of primary

tion about parents who removed their on concussions leads to misinformation

Survey Questions to be Asked

Madeline Baxter is a third-year undergraduate pursuing majors in

[by] being a new What is the most rewarding

Madeline Baxter’s success in finding and pursuing research demonstrates

What is Political Ontology

Preface Black theory excludes her and her experi-

Introduction ly-supporting. This paper argues that the

14 See Wilderson (2010, pg 337).

55 See Dussel (2013, pg 339, 558).

be understood as operating at the nexus of create a totality, but as we discussed before,

69 See Sexton (2016b, pg 15).

Art History Professor W hen the COVID-19

Networking for Gender

Introduction ating billboards with phrases such as “Do

What were the participant’s views on being a woman artist in Chicago?

How did the participant interact with women’s arts organizations?

Impact of COVID-19 on Medical

As a quality of life researcher, Patricia

M edical Social Sciences Professor Pa-

5 “Columbia River Salmon, Pacific Northwest | Chinook Salmon” n.d.

is for salmon through the measurement of additional 600.

19 “About Yakama Nation Fisheries | Status and Trends Reporting” n.d.

T Figure 3. Photo 1 of T Figure 4. Photo 2 of

T Figure 5. Photo 1 of T Figure 6. Map of salmon

W Figure 10. Prosser Dam in

*Counts for the most recent days may be partial counts.

Stories of Regret in Late

Mean Standard Deviation Minimum Maximum

White Adults African American Adults

T Table 3: Descriptive Statistics Comparing Men and Women

T Table 4: Frequencies and Instances of Objects of Regret

Object of Regret Instances Frequency

T Table 5: Frequencies and Instances of Methods of Coping

Method of Coping Instances Frequency

significantly positively correlated with ego-integrity, and psychological well-be-

“Territory Folks Should

18 The Musical Lyrics, “Oklahoma! Musical Script.”

36 Zinnemann, Oklahoma!, 16:55.

45 A noisy mock serenade for newlyweds.

62 The Musical Lyrics, “Oklahoma! Musical Script.”

Primary Sources Boss, A. G.. “(Un)Related Purposes: 588-603. doi:10.2307/215934.

Ryan Serrano is a graduate student in

[This interview has been edited for brevity

What drew you to Russian literature?

Do you have a favorite Russian novel?

What does being a graduate student look like?