Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Traços Da Lingua Portuguêsa
Traços Da Lingua Portuguêsa
um compndio lingustico
Contents
1
History of Portuguese
1.1
Social history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Romanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Iberian Romance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
Proto-Portuguese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.2.1
1.3.1
1.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
1.3
Galician-Portuguese
2.1
Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
2.1.2
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1
2.3
Oral traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.6
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2
Portuguese dialects
13
3.1
Main subdivisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.1.1
Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.1.2
Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.1.3
14
ii
CONTENTS
3.2
14
3.2.1
Conservative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.2.2
Innovative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.2.3
Homophones in dialects
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.3
Mixed languages
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.4
17
3.5
Mutual comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.6
List of dialects
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.8
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
19
4.1
Geographic distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
4.2
20
4.3
20
4.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
4.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
4.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Brazilian Portuguese
21
5.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
5.1.1
Portuguese legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
5.1.2
22
5.2
24
5.3
Formal writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
5.3.1
Spelling dierences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
25
5.4.1
Characteristics of informal BP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
5.5
Lexicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.6
Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.6.1
27
5.6.2
Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
28
5.7.1
Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
30
5.8.1
Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
Diglossia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
5.9.1
Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
5.9.2
Prestige . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
5.10 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
36
5.4
5.7
5.8
5.9
CONTENTS
iii
36
5.13 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
5.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
Portuguese language
38
6.1
History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
6.2
Geographic distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
6.2.1
Ocial status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
6.2.2
. . .
40
6.2.3
40
6.2.4
Future
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
Dialects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
6.3.1
Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
6.3.2
Portugal
43
6.3.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.3.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.4
Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
6.5
46
6.5.1
Galician-Portuguese in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
6.5.2
48
6.5.3
Derived languages
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
6.6.1
Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
6.6.2
Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
6.7
Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
6.8
Writing system
50
6.3
6.6
6.8.1
6.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spelling reforms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
6.10 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
6.10.1 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
53
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
54
54
History of Portugal
55
7.1
Etymology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
7.2
Early history
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
7.2.1
Prehistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
7.2.2
Ancient history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.3
Romanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.4
Germanic invasions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
iv
CONTENTS
7.5
7.6
7.7
58
7.5.1
58
7.5.2
59
7.5.3
59
7.5.4
Armation of Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
60
7.6.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
62
7.7.1
63
7.8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9
Pombaline era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.9.1
64
7.9.2
65
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
65
7.11.1 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
7.11.2 Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
66
67
68
68
68
69
7.12.3 Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
70
7.15 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
7.15.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
72
7.16.1 Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
7.16.2 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
73
74
7.18.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
7.18.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
79
Chapter 1
History of Portuguese
The Portuguese language developed in the Western
Iberian Peninsula from Latin brought there by Roman soldiers and colonists starting in the 3rd century BC. Old
Portuguese, also known as Galician-Portuguese, began to
diverge from other Romance languages after the fall of
the Western Roman Empire and the Germanic invasions,
also known as barbarian invasions in the 5th century
and started appearing in written documents around the
9th century. By the 13th century, Galician-Portuguese
had become a mature language with its own literature
and began to split into two languages. In all aspects
phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntaxPortuguese
is essentially the result of an organic evolution of Vulgar
Latin with some inuences from other languages, namely
the native Gallaecian language spoken prior to the Roman
domination.
Hispania Baetica, and Lusitania, the latter of which included most of modern Portugal. In the 3rd century, emperor Diocletian split Tarraconensis into three, creating
the adjacent province of Gallaecia, which geographically
enclosed the remaining part of Portugal, and modern-day
Galicia (in the northwestern region of Spain).
Romanization
to food, agriculture and the crafts, which have no cognates in other Romance languages except in Spanish from
which in fact, Portuguese borrowed many of its Arabicderived words. The Arabic inuence is also visible in placenames, especially in the southern provinces, such as the
Algarve, Alfama and Ftima. However, there are no Arabic loan words in the lexicon related to human feelings or
emotions; those are all of Latin, Germanic or Celtic origin.
1.1.3
Proto-Portuguese
The oldest surviving records containing written GalicianPortuguese are documents from the 9th century. In these
ocial documents, bits of Galician-Portuguese found its
way into texts that were written in Latin. Today, this
phase is known as Proto-Portuguese simply because the
earliest of these documents are from the former County
of Portugal, although Portuguese and Galician were still a
single language. This period lasted until the 12th century.
1.1.4
What modern scholars call Galician-Portuguese was originally the native language of the medieval Kingdom of
Galicia, which was founded in 410 and included the
northern part of present-day Portugal. It appears to have
also been used regularly in other Christian kingdoms of
the Iberian Peninsula as the language for lyric song. It
was employed by poets from throughout the non-Basque
medieval Christian kingdoms of the peninsula; including Leonese, Castilian, Aragonese and Catalan. It is also
the language used in the Cantigas de Santa Maria. These
songs were traditionally attributed to Alfonso X, a Castilian king, though more recent work shows that they must
have been composed in collaboration with many transla- 1.2.1
tors, poets and musicians.
1.1.5
The
divergence
Portuguese
of
Portugal was formally recognized as an independent kingdom in 1143 by the Kingdom of Len, into which Galicia
was incorporated at the time, with Afonso Henriques as
its rst king. In 1290, King Diniz created the rst Portuguese University in Lisbon (the Estudo Geral) and decreed that the language of the Portuguese, then simply
called the Vulgar language (i.e. Vulgar Latin) should
be used in preference to Latin and known as the Portuguese language. In 1296, Portuguese was adopted by
the Royal Chancellary and was used not only in poetry
but also when writing law and in notaries. In the rst period of Old Portuguese (from 12th to the 14th century),
the language came gradually to be used in ocial documents. With the political separation of the County of
Portugal from Galicia, Galician-Portuguese lost its unity
3
pronounced [kent]. Later Latinisms are marked with
(L).
Palatalization of voiceless stopsthe consonants [k] and
[t] assimilated with the high vowels [e] and [i], and with
the semivowel [j].
centum > [tj]ento > [ts]ento > [s]ento (hundred)
facere > fa[tj]ere > fa[ts]er > fa[dz]er > fa[z]er (to
do)
A more ancient evolution was
fortiam > for[ts]a > for[s]a (strength)
Voicingsome consonants did not disappear but rather
evolved with voiceless stops becoming voiced stops and
voiced stops becoming voiced fricatives in certain positions, this is inuenced by phonologies of Celtic languages:
mutum > mudo (mute)
lacum > lago (lake)
fabam > fava (broadbean)
1. If the vowels were near each other, they collapsed into [j] in most dialects[8]of Brazil and So Tom and Prncipe
a single vowel (nasal or oral, according to the nasality of is the original one.
the stressed vowel):
DissimilationModication of a sound by the inuence
of neighbouring sounds; similar became dierent over
time, so as to ease pronunciation.
bonum > bo > bom (good masc.)
calentem > cate > quente (hot)
1. Between vowels:
2. Otherwise, if the second vowel was more closed, the 2. Between consonants:
result was usually a nasal diphthong:
manum > mo (hand)
3. If the second vowel was more open, or as open, nasalization was lost:
lunam > la > lua (moon). Exception: una > a >
uma (one)
bonam > ba > boa (good fem.)
plenum > cho > cheio (full)
4. If the rst vowel was [i], however, nasalization evolved
to a palatal nasal consonant, inserted between the two
vowels:
5
cently in Rio de Janeiro (and rapidly spreading to other
parts of Brazil), /t/ and /d/ have been aricated to /t/
and /d/ before /i/, including /i/ from earlier unstressed
/e/.
Old Portuguese had a large number of occurrences of hiatus (two vowels next to each other with no consonant in
between), as a result of the loss of Latin /l n d / between vowels. In the transition to modern Portuguese,
these were resolved in a complex but largely regular fashion, either remaining, compressing into a single vowel,
Everywhere except in the above-mentioned parts of Tras- turning into a diphthong, or gaining an epenthetic consoos-Montes, the lamino-alveolar and apico-alveolar frica- nant such as /v/ or //; see above.
tives merged. (This appears to have happened no ear- Portuguese traditionally had two alveolar rhotic consolier than the seventeenth century, on the evidence of the nants, a ap // and trill //, as in Spanish. In most areas
spelling system used by Alexandre de Rhodes to represent of Portugal the trill // has passed into a uvular fricative
Middle Vietnamese). In northern Portugal and Galicia, //. In most parts of Brazil, however, // has become an
they became apico-alveolars (as in the central and north- unvoiced fricative /x/ (variously [x h]), and all instances
ern peninsular Spanish pronunciation of /s/). In most of // not preceding a vowel have been likewise aected.
of Brazil, they became lamino-alveolar consonants (as (When nal, this sound is sometimes not pronounced at
in the English pronunciation of /s/ and /z/). In central all.)
and southern Portugal (and in Rio de Janeiro and surrounding areas, due to the relocation of the Portuguese /l/ when not before a vowel became heavily velarized in
nobility here in the early 1800s), they merged as lamino- Portuguese. This still remains in Portugal, but in Brazil
alveolars before vowels, but as palato-alveolar / / else- has progressed further, merging into /w/.
where. Meanwhile, /t/ eventually lost its arication and
merged with //, although /t/ is maintained throughout
Tras-os-Montes.
1.4 See also
It appears that the sound written v was at one point during the medieval period pronounced as a voiced bilabial
fricative []. Subsequently, it either changed into a labiodental fricative [v] (as in central and southern Portugal,
and hence in Brazil), or merged into /b/ (as in northern Portugal and Galicia, similarly to modern Spanish).
Also similarly to modern Spanish, the voiced stops /b d
/ eventually became pronounced as fricatives [ ] between vowels and after consonants, other than in the clusters /nd/ /ld/ /n/ /mb/ (the nasals were presumably still
pronounced in these clusters, rather than simply reected
as a nasal vowel). However, this change happened after
the colonization of Brazil, and never aected Brazilian
Portuguese.
Final unstressed /a/ was subsequently raised to //. Final /o/ was eventually raised to /u/ in both Portugal and
Brazil, but independently. Final unstressed /e/ was likewise raised to /i/ in Brazil, but shifted to // in Portugal
(now barely pronounced). In Portugal (but not in Brazil),
these changes have come to aect almost all unstressed
instances of /a/ /o/ /e/; but not /ou/ (which now appears
as /o/), nor the former sequences /aa/ /ee/ /oo/ (which
now appear as /a/ // // respectively), nor in syllables
closed by stop consonants (e.g. in seco section, optar to choose). Hence in Portugal pesar to weigh
/pza/ but pregar to preach /pra/ (former preegar
< PRAEDICRE); morar to live /mua/, but corado
blushing /kadu/ (former coorado < COLRTUM),
roubar to rob /oba/. (In Brazil these appear as
/pezax/, /preax/, /moax/, /koadu/, /xo(u)bax/.) Re-
1.5 References
[1] Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around
200 BC)
[2] Portuguese vocabulary
[3] A lngua portuguesa nos seus percursos multiculturais
p.39
[4] Translation: Of those I see / I desire / no other lady but
you; / and a desire / so dire, / could kill a lion, / lady of my
heart: / ne little rose, / prettiest over all the owers / ne
little rose, / may your love / not put me / in such a disgrace.
Chapter 2
Galician-Portuguese
Galician-Portuguese (Galician: galego-portugus or
galaico-portugus) (Portuguese: galego-portugus or
galaico-portugus), also known as Old Portuguese or
Medieval Galician, was a West Iberian Romance language spoken in the Middle Ages, in the northwest area
of the Iberian Peninsula. Alternatively, it can be considered a historical period of the Galician and Portuguese
languages.
Galician-Portuguese was rst spoken in the area bounded
in the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean, and by the
Douro River in the south, comprising Galicia and northern Portugal, but it was later extended south of the Douro
by the Reconquista.
It is the common ancestor of modern Portuguese,
Galician, Eonavian and Fala varieties.
The term
Galician-Portuguese also designates the subdivision of
Map showing the historical retreat and expansion of Galician
the modern West Iberian group of Romance languages.
(Galician-Portuguese) within the context of its linguistic neighbours between the year 1000 and 2000.
2.1 Language
Roman languages spoken by the native people, each used
in
a dierent region of Roman Hispania, contributed
2.1.1 Origins and history
to the development of several dierent dialects of Vulgar Latin and that these diverged increasingly over time,
See also: History of Portuguese
eventually evolving into the early Romance Languages of
Galician-Portuguese developed in the region of the former Roman province of Gallaecia, from the Vulgar Latin the Iberia.
(common Latin) that had been introduced by Roman sol- It is believed that by 600, Vulgar Latin was no longer
diers, colonists and magistrates during the time of the spoken in the Iberian Peninsula.[6] An early form of
Roman Empire. Although the process may have been Galician-Portuguese was already spoken in the Kingdom
slower than in other regions, the centuries of contact with of the Suebi and by the year 800 Galician-Portuguese
Vulgar Latin, after a period of bilingualism, completely had already become the vernacular of northwestern
extinguished the native languages, leading to the evo- Iberia.[6] The rst known phonetic changes in Vulgar
lution of a new variety of Latin with a few Gallaecian Latin, which began the evolution to Galician-Portuguese,
took place during the rule of the Germanic groups, the
features.[2][3]
[6]
Gallaecian and Lusitanian inuences were absorbed into Suebi (411585) and Visigoths (585711). And the
inected innitive (or personal
the local Vulgar Latin dialect, which can be detected in Galician-Portuguese
[7]
and
the
nasal vowels may have evolved uninnitive)
some Galician-Portuguese words as well as in placenames
der
the
inuence
of
local Celtic languages[8][9] (as in
[4]
of Celtic and Iberian origin like Bolso. In general, the
more cultivated variety of Latin spoken by the Hispano- Old French). The nasal vowels would thus be a phonoRoman elites in Roman Hispania had a peculiar regional logic characteristic of the Vulgar Latin spoken in Roman
attested in writing until after
accent, referred to as Hispano ore and agrestius pronun- Gallaecia, but they are not
[10]
the
6th
and
7th
centuries.
[5]
tians. The more cultivated variety of Latin coexisted
with the popular variety. It is assumed that the Pre- The oldest known document to contain Galician7
CHAPTER 2. GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE
The Pacto dos irmos Pais, recently discovered (and possibly dating from before 1173), has been said to be even
older, but despite the enthusiasm of some scholars, it has
been shown[15] that the documents are not really written in Galician-Portuguese but are in fact a mixture of
Late Latin and Galician-Portuguese phonology, morphology and syntax. The Noticia de Torto, of uncertain date
(c. 1214?), and the Testamento de D. Afonso II (27
June 1214) are most certainly Galician-Portuguese.[14]
The earliest poetic texts (but not the manuscripts in which
they are found) date from c. 1195 to c. 1225. Thus, by
the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th
there are documents in prose and verse written in the local
Romance vernacular.
2.1.2
Literature
Galician-Portuguese had a special cultural role in the literature of the Christian kingdoms of medieval Iberia,
comparable to that of Occitan in France and Italy dur- 2.1.3 Divergence
ing the same historical period. The main extant sources
of Galician-Portuguese lyric poetry are these:
As a result of political division, Galician-Portuguese lost
its unity when the County of Portugal separated from the
The four extant manuscripts of the Cantigas de Santa Kingdom of Galicia (a dependent kingdom of Leon) to
establish the Kingdom of Portugal. The Galician and PorMaria
tuguese versions of the language then diverged over time
Cancioneiro da Ajuda
as they followed independent evolutionary paths.
Cancioneiro da Vaticana
The language was used for literary purposes from the - Galician was preserved in Galicia in the modern era benal years of the 12th century to roughly the middle of cause those who spoke it were the majority rural or unethe 14th century in what are now Spain and Portugal and ducated population living in the villages and towns, and
Castilian was taught as the correct language to the bilingual educated elite in the cities. Because until comparatively recently most Galicians lived in many small towns
and villages in a remote and mountainous land, the language changed very slowly and was only very slightly inuenced from outside the region. That situation made
Galician remain the vernacular of Galicia until the late
nineteenth/early twentieth centuries and is still widely
spoken; most Galicians today are bilingual. Modern Galician was only ocially recognized by the Second Spanish Republic in the 1930s as a co-ocial language with
Castilian within Galicia. The recognition was revoked by
the regime of Francisco Franco but was restored after his
death.
The Fala language, spoken in a small region of the Spanish autonomous community of Extremadura, underwent
a similar development as Galician.
Galician is the regional language of Galicia (sharing coociality with Spanish), and it is spoken by the majority
of its population. Portuguese continues to grow and, today, is the fth most spoken language in the world.
2.2 Phonology
1
Eventually shifted to /v/ in central and southern Portugal (and hence in Brazil) and merged
with /b/ in northern Portugal and Galicia.
2
occurred
in
/s/ and /z/ were apico-alveolar while /ts/ and /dz/ were
lamino-alveolar. Later in the history of Portuguese, all
the aricate sibilants became fricatives, with the apicoalveolar and lamino-alveolar sibilants remaining distinct
for a time but eventually merging in most dialects. See
History of Portuguese for more information.
2.2.1
A stanza of Galician-Portuguese
lyric
Cantiga de amigo
Eonavian
Fala language
Galician language
History of Portuguese
Portuguese language
Reintegrationism
10
2.5 References
[1] Galician-Portuguese at MultiTree on the Linguist List
[2] Lujn Martnez, Eugenio R. (3 May 2006). The Language(s) of the Callaeci (PDF). e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies 6: 715748. ISSN 1540-4889.
[3] Piel, Joseph-Maria (1989). Origens e estruturao
histrica do lxico portugus. Estudos de Lingustica
Histrica Galego-Portuguesa (PDF). Lisboa: IN-CM. pp.
916.
[4] A Toponmia Cltica e os vestgios de cultura material
da Proto-Histria de Portugal. Freire, Jos. Revista de
Guimares, Volume Especial, I, Guimares, 1999, pp.
265275. (PDF) . Retrieved on 14 November 2011.
[5] Adams, J. N. (2003). Bilingualism and the Latin language
(PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-817714. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
[6] As origens do romance galego-portugus. Instituto Luis
de Cames.
[7] Alinei, Mario; Benozzo, Francesco (2008). Alguns aspectos da Teoria da Continuidade Paleoltica aplicada
regio galega (PDF). Retrieved 14 November 2011.
CHAPTER 2. GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE
2.6 Bibliography
Manuscripts containing Galician-Portuguese ('secular')
lyric (cited from Cohen 2003 [see below under critical
editions]):
A = Cancioneiro da Ajuda, Palcio Real da Ajuda
(Lisbon).
B = Biblioteca Nacional (Lisbon), cod. 10991.
Ba = Bancroft Library (University of California,
Berkeley) 2 MS DP3 F3 (MS UCB 143)
N = Pierpont Morgan Library (New York), MS 979
(= PV).
S = Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo (Lisbon),
Capa do Cart. Not. de Lisboa, N. 7-A, Caixa 1,
Mao 1, Livro 3.
V = Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, cod. lat. 4803.
Va = Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, cod. lat. 7182,
. 276r 278r
Manuscripts containing the Cantigas de Santa Maria:
[8] Comparative Grammar of Latin 34 Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
[11] The oldest document containing traces of GalicianPortuguese, a.D. 870. Novomilenio.inf.br. Retrieved on
14 November 2011.
Critical editions of individual genres of GalicianPortuguese poetry (note that the cantigas d'amor are split
between Michalis 1904 and Nunes 1932):
2.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Michalis de Vasconcellos, Carolina. (1904). Cancioneiro da Ajuda. Edio critica e commentada
por . 2 vols. Halle a.S., Max Niemeyer (republished Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional Casa de Moeda,
1990).
Nunes, Jos Joaquim. (1932). Cantigas d'amor
dos trovadores galego-portugueses. Edio crtica
acompanhada de introduo, comentrio, variantes,
e glossrio por . Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade (Biblioteca de escritores portugueses) (republished by Lisboa: Centro do Livro Brasileiro, 1972).
11
zur allgemeinen und vergleichenden Literaturwissenschaft) (Port. version in Oliveira 2001b: 141
170).
____ (1998b). Galicia trobadoresca, in Anuario
de Estudios Literarios Galegos 1998: 207229 (Port.
Version in Oliveira 2001b: 97110).
____ (2001a). Aventures i Desventures del Joglar
Gallegoportougus (tr. Jordi Cerd). Barcelona:
Columna (La Flor Inversa, 6).
____ (2001b). O Trovador galego-portugus e o
seu mundo. Lisboa: Notcias Editorial (Coleco
Poliedro da Histria).
Williams, Edwin B. (1962). From Latin to Por ____ (1998a). Le surgissement de la culture
tuguese. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: University of Penntroubadouresque dans l'occident de la Pninsule
sylvania Press (1st ed. Philadelphia, 1938).
Ibrique (I). Compositeurs et cours, in (Anton Touber, ed.) Le Rayonnement des Troubadours, Amsterdam, pp. 8595 (Internationale Forschungen Latin Lexica:
12
Mediae Latinitatis Lexicon Minus. Lexique Latin
Mdivale-Francais/Anglais. A Medieval LatinFrench/English Dictionary. composuit J. F. Niermeyer, perciendum curavit C. van de Kieft. Abbreviationes et index fontium composuit C. van de
Kieft, adiuvante G. S. M. M. Lake-Schoonebeek.
Leiden - New York - Kln: E. J. Brill 1993 (1st ed.
1976).
Oxford Latin Dictionary. ed. P. G. W. Glare. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1983.
Historical and Comparative Grammar of Latin:
Weiss, Michael. (2009). Outline of the Historical
and Comparative Grammar of Latin. Ann Arbor,
MI: Beechstave Press.
On the early documents cited from late 12th century,
please see Ivo Castro, Introduo Histria do Portugus.
Geograa da Lngua. Portugus Antigo. (Lisbon: Colibri,
2004), pp. 121125 (with references).
CHAPTER 2. GALICIAN-PORTUGUESE
Chapter 3
Portuguese dialects
Portuguese dialects are mutually intelligible variations extremely divergent pairs, the phonological changes may
of the Portuguese language over Portuguese-speaking make it dicult for speakers to understand rapid speech.
countries and other areas holding some degree of cultural
bound with the language. Portuguese has two standard
forms of writing and numerous regional spoken variations 3.1 Main subdivisions
(with often large phonological and lexical dierences).
The standard written form of Portuguese used in Brazil 3.1.1 Portugal
is regulated by the Brazilian Academy of Letters and is
sometimes called Brazilian Portuguese (although the term Main article: European Portuguese
primarily means all dialects spoken in Brazil as a whole). The dialects of Portugal can be divided into two major
In Portugal, the language is regulated by the Sciences
Academy of Lisbon, Class of Letters, which shapes the
standard spelling set of norms associated with European
Portuguese. This written variation is the one preferred
by Portuguese African and Asian ex-colonies, including
Cabo Verde, Mozambique, Angola, Timor-Leste, Macau
and Goa.
Dierences between Brazilian and European written
forms of Portuguese occur in a similar way (and are often compared to) those of American and British English,
though spelling divergencies are generally believed to occur with a little greater frequency in the two Portuguese
written dialects. Dierences in syntax and word construction, not directly related with spelling, are also observed. Furthermore, there were attempts to unify the
two written variations, the most recent of them being the
Orthographic Agreement of 1990, which only began to
take eect in the 2000s and is still under implementation in some countries. This and previous reforms faced
criticism by people who say they are unnecessary or inefcient or even that they create more dierences instead
groups:
of reducing or eliminating them.
The dierences between the various spoken Portuguese
dialects are mostly in phonology, in the frequency of
usage of certain grammatical forms, and especially in
the distance between the formal and informal levels of
speech. Lexical dierences are numerous but largely
conned to peripheral words, such as plants, animals,
and other local items, with little impact in the core lexicon.
Dialectal deviations from the ocial grammar are relatively few. As a consequence, all Portuguese dialects
are mutually intelligible although for some of the most
13
14
In the Portuguese town of Barrancos (in the border between Extremadura, Andalucia and Portugal), a dialect Many dialects have special characteristics. Most of the
of Portuguese heavily inuenced by Southern Spanish di- dierences are seen in phonetics and phonology, and here
are some of the more prominent:
alects is spoken, known as barranquenho.
3.1.2
Brazil
3.1.3
3.2.1 Conservative
In some regions of northern Portugal and Brazil, the
digraph ou still denotes a falling diphthong [ou], but
it has been monophthongized to [o] by most speakers of Portuguese.
In the dialects of Alto-Minho and Trs-os-Montes
(northern Portugal), the digraph ch still denotes the
aricate /t/, as in Galicia, but for most speakers, it
has merged with //.
Some dialects of northern Portugal still contrast
the predorsodental sibilants c/ /s/ and z /z/ with
apicoalveolar sibilants s(s) /s/ and s /z/, with minimal
pairs such as passo /pasu/ step and pao /pasu/
palace or coser /kuze/ to sew and cozer /kuze/
to cook, which are homophones in most dialects.
The other dialects of northern Portugal that have lost
this distinction have apicoalveolar sibilants instead
of the predorsodental fricatives, found in all southern dialects of Portugal as well as in Brazil. In those
dialects, they also appear in syllable codas instead of
the [] realizations that can be observed in all southern dialects.
In northern Portugal, the pronoun vs and its associated verb forms are still in use.
In Alentejo and parts of the Algarve (southern Portugal), one nds word-nal [i] where standard EP
has [], a feature shared with BP.
Also in Brazil, Alentejo and Algarve, progressive
constructions are formed with the gerund form of
verbs instead of a followed by the innitive that one
nds in most dialects of Portugal: est chovendo vs.
est a chover (its raining).
3.2.2
Innovative
15
be pronounced as [u mew im w kpow u~ kau
novu] or [u mew im w kpow ka novu]
in those dialects. In the Lisbon dialect the last two
words would instead be pronounced [ka novu],
[ka nov], [ka novu] or [ka nov]. In southern Portugal, word nal [w] and [w ] are also aected
so in Alentejo, the same sentence would sound [u
me im kpo ka novu] (in that dialect, utterance nal vowels are also noticeably very prolonged
so a more accurate transcription might be [novu]
for this example). In the southernmost region of the
country, the Algarve, the vowel is completely lost:
[u me im kpo ka nov].
In most of Brazil, syllable-nal /l/ is vocalized to /w/,
whicj causes mau bad and mal badly to become
homophones (although Brazil tends to use ruim in
place of mau). Similarly, degrau step and jornal
journal rhyme, which results in false plurals such
as degrais steps (vs. correct degraus), by analogy
with correct plural jornais. In the caipira dialect,
and in parts of Gois and Minas Gerais, syllablenal /l/ is instead merged with //, pronounced as an
alveolar approximant [] in the Caipira way.
The pronunciation of syllable-initial and syllablenal r varies considerably with dialect. See Guttural
R in Portuguese, for details. Syllable-initial r and
doubled rr are pronounced as a guttural [] in most
cities in Portugal, but as a traditional trill [r] in rural Portugal. In Brazil, the sound is normally pronounced as an unvoiced guttural ([x], [] or [h]),
which is also used for r at the end of syllables (except in the caipira dialect, which uses an alveolar approximant [], and the gacho dialect, which uses an
alveolar ap [] or trill [r]). r at the end of words,
in Brazil, is normally silent or barely pronounced.
In Macau, where Portuguese is spoken mostly as a
second language, initial and intervocalic r is sometimes replaced with a diphthong, and r at the end of
words (esp. when nal-stressed) is sometimes silent.
In the Northeast of Brazil and, to an increasing extent, in Rio de Janeiro and elsewhere, [j] is inserted
before nal /s/ in a nal-stressed word, which makes
mas but and mais more homonyms, both pronounced [majs] or [maj]. Other aected examples
are faz he does, dez ten, ns we, voz voice,
luz light, Jess Jesus, etc. Related forms like
fazem, vozes, nosso are unaected since /s/ is no
longer nal.
16
Asa means wing, and haja is the imperative and second subjunctive third singular form of haver, may he/she
exist. The words are usually distinguished, but in Alto
Trs-os-Montes and for some East Timorese Portuguese
speakers, they are homophones, both voiced palatoalveolar sibilants.
Boa and voa
X and ch
X means "shah", and ch means tea. At the beginning of
words, <x> and <ch> are usually voiceless palato-alveolar
fricatives, but <ch> is a voiceless palato-alveolar aricate
in northern Portugal. The sound happens in other cases
in Southeastern Brazil but disappeared in the rest of the
Portuguese-speaking world.
17
3.8 References
[1] CARVALHO, Ana Maria. Variation and diusion of
Uruguayan Portuguese in a bilingual border town, by
Ana Maria Carvalho, University of California at Berkeley USA. (PDF)
18
Chapter 4
Paraguay has been receiving waves of Brazilian immigrants for decades, known as Brasiguaios. Unlike in
Uruguay, the Brasigaios are a result of more recent immigration and, as such, are more markedly Brazilian in
speech and cultural identity. These immigrants tend to
settle in the eastern regions of the country and most originate from the Brazilian state of Paran. Estimates of the
size of this community range from 200,000 to 500,000.
Venezuela has a large and prominent Portuguese immigrant community, one of the largest in Hispanoamerica.
Its membership in MERCOSUR is pending and, towards
that end, the Venezuelan government has begun to encourage the teaching of Portuguese as a second language.
Portuguese is to be made available in the public school
system.[3]
19
20
are 318,000 Canadians of Portuguese origin.[5]
Luso American
Portuguese Canadian
Lusophone
4.5 References
[1] http://portal.educ.ar/noticias/educacion-y-sociedad/
el-portugues-sera-materia-obli.php
[2] http://www.misionesonline.net/paginas/detalle2.php?
db=noticias2007&id=128150
[3] http://www.cidadeverde.com/geral_txt.php?id=38265
[4] Milton Mariano Azevedo, Portuguese a Linguistic Introduction, pp205
[5] http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census06/data/
topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&
APATH=3&CATNO=97-562-XCB2006012&
DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=
0&GAL=&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=0&IPS=
97-562-XCB2006012&METH=0&ORDER=&PID=
92339&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=
&StartRow=&SUB=&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&
VID=&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928
Portuguese-speaking communities in the Americas outside of Brazil, from Canada to South America form the
primary audience for Brazilian and Portuguese satellite
television in their respective countries. Such programming be it football matches, telenovelas or variety shows
allow lusophones outside of Brazil to access media and
cultural content in Portuguese and stay informed and connected to events in Brazil. Rede Globo and RTPi are
available throughout the Americas.
Chapter 5
Brazilian Portuguese
For Brazilians of Portuguese descent, see Portuguese 5.1.1 Portuguese legacy
Brazilian.
The existence of Portuguese in Brazil is a legacy of
Brazilian Portuguese (portugus do Brasil [potuez du the Portuguese colonization of the Americas. The rst
baziw] or portugus brasileiro [potuez bazileju]) is wave of Portuguese-speaking immigrants settled in Brazil
a set of dialects of the Portuguese language used mostly in the 16th century, but the language was not widely
in Brazil. It is spoken by virtually all of the 200 mil- used then. For a time Portuguese coexisted with Lngua
lion inhabitants of Brazil[3] and spoken widely across the Gerala lingua franca based on Amerindian languages
Brazilian diaspora, today consisting of about two million that was used by the Jesuit missionariesas well as
with various African languages spoken by the millions of
Brazilians who have emigrated to other countries.
slaves brought into the country between the 16th and 19th
This variety of the Portuguese language diers, par- centuries. By the end of the 18th century, Portuguese had
ticularly in phonology and prosody, from varieties and armed itself as the national language. Some of the main
dialects spoken in most Portuguese-speaking majority contributions to that swift change were the expansion of
countries, including native Portugal and African countries colonization to the Brazilian interior, and the growing
the dialects of which, partly because of the more re- numbers of Portuguese settlers, who brought their lancent end of Portuguese colonialism in these regions, tend guage and became the most important ethnic group in
to have a closer connection to contemporary European Brazil.
Portuguese. Despite this, Brazilian and European Portuguese vary little in formal writing[4] (in many ways anal- Beginning in the early 18th century, Portugal's governogous to the dierences encountered between American ment made eorts to expand the use of Portuguese
throughout the colony, particularly because its consoland British English).
idation in Brazil would help guarantee to Portugal the
In 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Coun- lands in dispute with Spain (according to various treaties
tries (CPLP), which included representatives from all signed in the 18th century, those lands would be ceded
countries with Portuguese as the ocial language, to the people who eectively occupied them). Under the
reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese or- administration of the Marquis of Pombal (17501777),
thography to unify the two standards then in use by Brazil Brazilians started to favour the use of Portuguese, as the
on one side and the remaining Lusophone countries on the Marquis expelled the Jesuit missionares (who had taught
other. This spelling reform went into eect in Brazil on Lngua Geral) and prohibited the use of Nhengatu, or
1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into Lingua Franca.[6]
law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a 6year adaptation period, during which both orthographies The failed colonization attempts by the French in Rio
co-existed. All of the CPLP countries have signed the re- de Janeiro in the 16th century and the Dutch in the
form. In Brazil, this reform will be in force as of January Northeast in the 17th century had negligible eects on
2016. Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries Portuguese. The substantial waves of non-Portuguesespeaking immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th
have since begun using the new orthography.
centuries (mostly from Italy, Spain, Germany, Poland,
Regional varieties of Brazilian Portuguese, while re- Japan and Lebanon) were linguistically integrated into
maining mutually intelligible, may diverge from each the Portuguese-speaking majority within few generations,
other in matters such as vowel pronunciation and speech except for some areas of the three southernmost states
intonation.[5]
(Paran, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul)in the
case of Germans, Italians and Slavsand in rural areas
of the state of So Paulo (Italians and Japanese).
5.1 History
22
5.1.2
Brazilian Portuguese has borrowed copiously from English, especially words related to the following elds:
The development of Brazilian Portuguese has been inuenced by other languages with which it has come into contact: rst the Amerindian languages of the original inhabitants, then the various African languages spoken by the
slaves, and nally those of later European and Asian immigrants. Although the vocabulary is still predominantly
Portuguese, the inuence of other languages is evident in
the Brazilian lexicon, which today includes, for example,
hundreds of words of TupiGuarani origin referring to
local ora and fauna; numerous Yoruba words related to
foods, religious concepts, and musical expressions; and
English terms from the elds of modern technology and
commerce.
Words deriving from the Tupi language are particularly prevalent in place names (Itaquaquecetuba,
Pindamonhangaba, Caruaru, Ipanema, Paraba). The
native languages also contributed the names of most of
the plants and animals found in Brazil, such as arara
("macaw"), jacar (South American alligator"), tucano
("toucan"), mandioca ("cassava"), abacaxi ("pineapple"),
and many more.
However, many TupiGuarani
toponyms did not derive directly from Amerindian expressions, but were in fact coined by European settlers
and Jesuit missionaries, who used the Lngua Geral extensively in the rst centuries of colonization. Many of
the Amerindian words entered the Brazilian Portuguese
lexicon as early as in the 16th century, and some of them
were eventually borrowed by European Portuguese and
later even into other European languages.
African languages provided hundreds of words as
well, especially in the domains of: food (e.g.,
quitute, quindim, acaraj, moqueca); religious concepts
(mandinga, macumba, orix ("orisha"), and ax); AfroBrazilian music (samba, lundu, maxixe, berimbau); bodyrelated parts and diseases (banguela toothless, bunda
buttocks, capenga lame, caxumba mumps); geographical features (cacimba well, quilombo or mocambo runaway slave settlement, senzala slave quarters); articles of clothing (mianga beads, abad
"capoeira or dance uniform, tanga loincloth, thong);
and household concepts, such as cafun (caress on the
head), curinga ("joker card"), caula (youngest child,
also cadete and lho mais novo), and moleque (brat,
spoiled child). Although the African slaves had various
ethnic origins, by far most of the borrowings were con-
5.1. HISTORY
often closer to the pronunciation [bl()]), stalking ([stawk], very often closer to [stwk()]),
closet, ashback, check-up, ranking, bondage, dark,
goth (gtica), vamp, cueca boxer or cueca slip (male
underwear), black tie (or traje de gala/cerimnia
noturna), smoking ('tuxedo'), quepe, blazer, jeans,
cardig, blush, make-up artist, hair stylist, gloss
labial (hybrid, also brilho labial), pancake (facial
powder, also p de arroz), playground, blecaute,
script, sex symbol, bombshell, blockbuster, multiplex,
best-seller, it-girl, fail (web context), trolling (trollar), blogueiro, photobombing, sele, sitcom, standup comedy, non-sense, non-stop, gamer, camper,
crooner, backing vocal, roadie, playback, overdrive,
food truck, monster truck, picape/pick-up (DJ), coquetel ('cocktail'), drinque, pub, bartender, barman,
lanche, underground (cultural), op (movie/TV context and slang), DJ, VJ, haole (slang, surfers brought
from Hawaii).
23
24
Also the usage of the reexive me especially in So Paulo of these borrowings and very minor alterations, Braziland the South as an example of Italianism. Due to the ian Portuguese can be traced directly from 16th-century
large Italian immigrant population, parts of the Southern European Portuguese.[9]
and Southeastern states exhibit some Italian inuence on
prosody, including patterns of intonation and stress.
Fewer words have been borrowed from Japanese. The
latter borrowings are also mostly related to food and
drinks or culture-bound concepts, such as quimono, from
Japanese kimono, karaok, yakisoba, temakeria, sushi
bar, mang, biombo, from by bu sukurn, folding screen;
ken game j ken p, jankenpon ('rock-paper-scissors') is
played with the Japanese words being said before the
start, saqu, sashimi, tenpur (which has Portuguese etymology), hashi, wasabi, johrei (religious philosophy),
nikkei ('Japanese descendants, even used by banks targeting public), gaijin ('non-Japanese'), issei ('Japanese immigrant'), the dierent descending generations nissei, sansei, yonsei, gossei, rokussei and shichissei; racial terms
ainoko ('Eurasian'), hafu; work related terms and social economical terms, as well as historical and ethnic
might be used in some spheres: koseki (research about the
family history), dekassegui ('dekasegi'), arubaito, kaizen,
seiketsu, karoshi (death by work excess), burakumin,
kamikaze, seppuku, harakiri, jisatsu, jigai, ainu; martial
arts terms such as karat, aikid, bushid, katana, jud,
jiu-jtsu, kyud, sum; writing kanji, kana, katakana, hiragana, romaji; art concepts such as kabuki and ikebana,
bathing furniture/device ofur, Nihong (target news niche
and websites), kabch (introduced in Japan by the Portuguese), reiki, and shiatsu. Some words have popular
usage while others are known for a specic context in
specic circles. Terms used among Nikkei descendants
are oba-chan ('grandma'), onee-san, onee-chan, onii-san,
onii-chan, toasts and salutations kampai, banzai, and
sometimes treatment suxes chan, kun, sama, san, senpai.
Chinese contributed with a few terms such as tai chi
chuan, nunchaku and ch.
Aside from the above-mentioned prosodic eects from
Italian, the inuence of other languages on the phonology of Brazilian Portuguese have been very minor. Some
authors claim that the loss of initial es- in the forms of the
verb estar (e.g. T bom) now widespread in Brazil
reects an inuence from the speech of African slaves.[8]
Something extremely controversial since the same feature attributed to African inuence can be found in European Portuguese and several other Romance languages.
It is also claimed that some common grammatical features of Brazilian Portuguese such as the near-complete
disappearance of certain verb inections and a marked
preference for the periphrastic Periphrasis future (e.g.
vou falar) over the synthetic future (falarei) recall the grammatical simplication typical of pidgins and
creoles. However, the same or similar processes can be
observed in the European variant, (and in Spanish variants e.g., Chilean, Argentinian and Mexican Spanish),
and such theories have not yet been proved.[9] Regardless
5.3.1
Spelling dierences
25
The linguistic situation of the BP informal speech in relation to the standard language is controversial. There are
authors (Bortoni, Kato, Mattos e Silva, Bagno, Perini)
who describe it as a case of diglossia, considering that
informal BP has developed both in phonetics and
Further information: Reforms of Portuguese orthography grammar in its own particular way.
The Brazilian spellings of certain words dier from those
used in Portugal and the other Portuguese-speaking countries. Some of these dierences are merely orthographic,
but others reect true dierences in pronunciation.
Until the implementation of the 1990 orthographic reform, a major subset of the dierences related to the consonant clusters cc, c, ct, pc, p, and pt. In many cases, the
letters c or p in syllable-nal position have become silent
in all varieties of Portuguese, a common phonetic change
in Romance languages (cf. Spanish objeto, French objet).
Accordingly, they stopped being written in BP (compare
Italian spelling standards), but continued to be written in
other Portuguese-speaking countries. For example, we
had EP aco / BP ao (action), EP ptimo / BP timo
(optimum), and so on, where the consonant was silent
both in BP and EP, but the words were spelled dierently. Only in a small number of words is the consonant
silent in Brazil and pronounced elsewhere or vice versa,
as in the case of BP fato, but EP facto. However, the new
Portuguese language orthographic reform led to the elimination of the writing of the silent consonants also in the
EP, making now the writing system virtually identical in
all of the Portuguese-speaking countries,
26
5.4.1
Characteristics of informal BP
5.6. GRAMMAR
5.5 Lexicon
The vocabularies of Brazilian and European Portuguese
also dier in a couple of thousand words, many of which
refer to concepts that were introduced separately in BP
and EP.
Since Brazilian independence in 1822, BP has tended
to borrow words from English and French. However,
BP generally adopts foreign words with minimal adjustments, while EP tends to apply deeper morphological
changes. However, there are instances of BP adapting
English words, whereas EP retains the original form
hence BP estoque and EP stock. Finally, one dialect often
borrowed a word while the other coined a new one from
native elements. So one has, for example
BP mouse English "(computer) mouse versus EP rato literal translation of mouse in
Portuguese (mouse is also used in EP)
BP esporte (alternatives: desporto, desporte)
English sport versus EP desporto Spanish
deporte
BP jaqueta English jacket versus EP
bluso EP blusa French blouse/blouson
(also used in BP)
BP concreto English concrete versus EP
beto French bton (in BP, a concrete truck
is still called betoneira)
BP grampeador (stapler) grapadora
Spanish grapa versus EP agrafador agrafo
French agrafe.
A few other examples are given in the following table:
5.6 Grammar
5.6.1
27
fazer (With this girl I don't know what to do).[12] The
use of redundant pronouns for means of topicalization is
considered grammatically incorrect, because the topicalized noun phrase, according to traditional European analysis, has no syntactic function. This kind of construction,
however, is sometimes used in European Portuguese poetry, usually for keeping the metre, and is considered a
case of anacoluthon (anacoluto in Portuguese). Brazilian grammars traditionally treat this structure similarly,
rarely mentioning such a thing as topic. Nevertheless,
the so-called anacoluthon has taken on a new dimension
in Brazilian Portuguese.[13] The poet Carlos Drummond
de Andrade once wrote a short metapoema (a metapoem,
i. e., a poem about poetry, a specialty for which he was
renowned) treating the concept of anacoluto:
[...] O homem, chamar-lhe mito no passa
de anacoluto[14] (The man, calling him myth is
nothing more than an anacoluthon).
In colloquial language, this kind of anacoluto may even be
used when the subject itself is the topic, only to add more
emphasis to this fact, e.g. the sentence Essa menina, ela
costuma tomar conta de cachorros abandonados (This
girl, she usually takes care of abandoned dogs). This
structure highlights the topic, and could be more accurately translated as As for this girl, she usually takes care
of abandoned dogs.
The use of this construction is particularly common with
compound subjects, as in, e.g., Eu e ela, ns fomos
passear (She and I, we went for a walk). This happens
because the traditional syntax (Eu e ela fomos passear)
places a plural-conjugated verb immediately following
an argument in the singular, which may sound ugly to
Brazilian ears. The redundant pronoun thus claries the
verbal inection in such cases.
Progressive
Syntactic and morphological features Portuguese makes extensive use of verbs in the progres-
Topic-prominent language
28
of EP (namely from Alentejo, Algarve, Aores(Azores), clitic is replaced by preposition + strong pronoun: thus BP
Madeira) will also tend to feature estar + gerund as in writes ela o deu para mim (she gave it to me) instead
Brazil.
of EP ela deu-mo; the latter most probably will not be
understood by Brazilians, being obsolete in BP.
Personal pronouns
Main article: Portuguese personal pronouns
Syntax In general, the dialects that gave birth to Portuguese had a quite exible use of the object pronouns in
the proclitic or enclitic positions. In Classical Portuguese,
the use of proclisis was very extensive, while, on the contrary, in modern European Portuguese the use of enclisis
has become indisputably majoritary.
Brazilians normally place the object pronoun before the
verb (proclitic position), as in ele me viu (he saw me). In
many such cases, the proclisis would be considered awkward or even grammatically incorrect in EP, in which the
pronoun is generally placed after the verb (enclitic position), namely ele viu-me. However, formal BP still follows EP in avoiding starting a sentence with a proclitic
pronoun; so both will write Deram-lhe o livro (They gave
him/her the book) instead of Lhe deram o livro, though
it will seldom be spoken in BP (but would be clearly understood).
However, in verb expressions accompanied by an object
pronoun, Brazilians normally place it amid the auxiliary
verb and the main one (ela vem me pagando but not ela
me vem pagando or ela vem pagando-me). In some cases,
in order to adapt this use to the standard grammar, some
Brazilian scholars recommend that ela vem me pagando
should be written like ela vem-me pagando (as in EP),
in which case the enclisis could be totally acceptable if
there would not be a factor of proclisis. Therefore, this
phenomenon may or not be considered improper according to the prescribed grammar, since, according to the
case, there could be a factor of proclisis that would not
permit the placement of the pronoun between the verbs
(e.g. when there is a negative adverb near the pronoun, in
which case the standard grammar prescribes proclisis, ela
no me vem pagando and not ela no vem-me pagando).
Nevertheless, nowadays, it is becoming perfectly acceptable to use a clitic between two verbs, without linking it
with a hyphen (as in 'Poderia se dizer', No vamos lhes
dizer') and this usage (known as: pronome solto entre dois
verbos) can be found in modern(ist) literature, textbooks,
magazines and newspapers like Folha de S.Paulo and O
Estado (see in-house style manuals of these newspapers,
available on-line, for more details).
Contracted forms Even in the most formal contexts,
BP never uses the contracted combinations of direct and
indirect object pronouns which are sometimes used in EP,
such as me + o = mo, lhe + as = lhas. Instead, the indirect
Mesoclisis The mesoclitic placement of pronouns (between the verb stem and its inection sux) is viewed
as archaic in BP, and therefore is restricted to very formal situations or stylistic texts. Hence the phrase Eu darlhe-ia, still current in EP, would be normally written Eu
lhe daria in BP. Incidentally, a marked fondness for enclitic and mesoclitic pronouns was one of the many memorable eccentricities of former Brazilian President Jnio
Quadros, as in his famous quote Bebo-o porque lquido,
se fosse slido com-lo-ia (I drink it [liquor] because it
is liquid, if it were solid I would eat it)
5.6.2 Preferences
There are many dierences between formal written BP
and EP that are simply a matter of dierent preferences
between two alternative words or constructions that are
both ocially valid and acceptable.
Simple versus compound tenses
A few synthetic tenses are usually replaced by compound
tenses, such as in:
future indicative: eu cantarei (simple), eu vou
cantar (compound, ir"+innitive)
conditional: eu cantaria (simple), eu iria/ia
cantar (compound, ir"+innitive)
past perfect: eu cantara (simple), eu tinha cantado (compound, ter"+past participle)"
Also, spoken BP usually uses the verb ter (own, have,
sense of possession) and rarely haver (have, sense of
existence, or there to be), especially as an auxiliary (as
it can be seen above) and as a verb of existence.
written: ele havia/tinha cantado (he had sung)
spoken: ele tinha cantado
written: ele podia haver/ter dito (he might have
said)
spoken: ele podia ter dito
5.7.1
Phonology
29
tion extends uniformly through the entire vowel. In the
Southern-Southeastern dialects of Brazilian Portuguese,
the nasalization begins almost imperceptibly and then
gets far stronger in the end of the vowel, rhus being
closer to the nasalization of Hindi-Urdu phonology (see
Anusvara). In some cases, the nasal archiphoneme actually represents the addition of a nasal consonant like /m,
n, , , w , /.
manta = /m nt/
Vowels
tampa = /t mp/
banco = /b ku/
The reduction of vowels is one of the main phonetic
characteristics of the Portuguese language, but the inten- bem = /b/
sity and frequency with which that phenomenon happens bom = /b/ or /b/ or /b/
varies signicantly between Brazilian Portuguese and Eupan = /p / or /p /
ropean Portuguese.
Brazilians generally pronounce vowels more openly than
Europeans even when they reduce them. In the syllables Consonants
that follow the stressed one, BP generally pronounces o as
[u], a as [], and e as [i]. Some dialects of BP also follow Palatalization of /di/ and /ti/ One of the most noticeable tendencies of modern BP is the palatalization of
these rules for vowels before the stressed syllable.
/d/ and /t/ by most regions, which are pronounced [d]
In contrast, EP pronounces unstressed a primarily as [],
and [t] (or [d] and [t]), respectively, before /i/. The
elides some unstressed vowels or reduces them to a short,
word presidente president, for example, is pronounced
near-close near-back unrounded vowel [], a sound that
[pezidti] in these regions of Brazil but [pzidt()]
does not exist in BP. Thus, for example, the word setemin Portugal. The pronunciation probably began in Rio
bro is [setbu]/[stbu] in BP but [s()tbu] in EP.
de Janeiro and is often still associated with this city but
The main dierence among the dialects of Brazilian Por- is now standard in many other states and major cities,
tuguese is the frequent presence or not of open vowels in such as Belo Horizonte and Salvador, and it has spread
unstressed syllables. Southern and Southeastern dialects more recently to some regions of So Paulo (because
generally pronounce e and o when they are not reduced of migrants from other regions), where it is common in
to [i] and [u] and as closed vowels [e] and [o] if they are most speakers under 40 or so. It has always been stannot stressed, in which case the pronunciation will depend dard in Brazils Japanese community since it is also a feaon the word. Thus, 'operao' (operation) and 'rebolar' ture of Japanese. The regions that still preserve the un(to shake ones body) may be pronounced [opeas ] and palatalized [ti] and [di] are mostly in the Northeast and
[hebola].
South of Brazil by the stronger inuence from European
However, in Northeastern and Northern accents, there are Portuguese (Northeast), and from Italian and Argentine
many complex rules that still have not been much studied Spanish (South).
but lead to the open pronunciation of e and o in a huge
number of words. Thus, contrary to other dialects, the
open vowels [] and [] are not used only in stressed syllables. Thus, the previous examples would be pronounced
dierently: [pas ] and [hbla].
Another noticeable if minor dierence between
Northern-Northeastern
dialects
and
SouthernSoutheastern ones is the frequency of nasalization
of vowels before m and n: in the former, the vowels are
virtually always nasalized they are stressed or unstressed;
in the latter dialects, the vowels may remain unnasalized
if they are unstressed. A famous example of this distinction is the pronunciation of banana: a Northeasterner
would speak [b n n], and a Southerner would speak
[ban n].
However, in some regions of Brazil (such as some Northeastern dialects), there has been an opposite tendency to
reduce the unstressed vowel [i] into a very weak vowel so
partes or destratar are often realized similarly to [pahts]
and [dtata]. Sometimes, the phenomenon occurs even
It is also noteworthy that the vowel nasalization, in some more intensely in unstressed posttonic vowels (except the
dialects of Brazilian Portuguese is very dierent from nal ones) and causes the reduction of the word and
that seen in French, for example. In French, the nasaliza- the creation of new consonant clusters (prtica > prt'ca;
30
mquina > maq'na; abbora > abobra; ccega > cosca).
L-vocalization and suppression of nal r Syllablenal /l/ is pronounced [u ], and syllable-nal /r/ is weakened in most regions to [] or [h] but not in So Paulo
State or in the South Region ir dropped (especially at
the ends of words). That sometimes results in rather
striking transformations of common words. The brand
name McDonalds, for example, is rendered [mkidnawdis], and the word rock is rendered as [hki].
(Both initial /r/ and doubled r are pronounced in BP as
[h], as with syllable-nal [r].) Combined with /n/ and
/m/ already not being at the end of syllables in Portuguese
and replaced with nasalization on the previous vowel, that
makes BP strongly favor open syllables.
Another remarkable aspect of BP is the suppression of nal r, even in formal speech. It may still be pronounced, in
most of Brazil as [] or [h], in formal situations, at the end
of a phrase, but almost never in a coda with other words
(then, the pronunciation would be [])). Thus, verbs like
matar and correr are normally pronounced [mata] and
[kohe]. However, the same suppression also happens in
EP much less often than in BP.[15]
Nasalization Nasalization is much stronger in many
BP dialects than in EP and is especially noticeable in
vowels before /n/ or /m/ before by a vowel, but in EP,
they are nearly without nasalization. For the same reason,
open vowels (which are not normally under nasalization
in Portuguese) cannot occur before /n/ or /m/ in BP, but
can in EP. That sometimes aects the spelling of words.
For example, EP, harmnico harmonic [mniku] is
BP harmnico [amniku]. It also can aect verbal
paradigms: EP distinguishes falamos we speak [fl mu] from 'falmos [flamu] we spoke, but in BP, it
is written and pronounced falamos [fal mus] for both.
Related is the dierence in pronunciation of the conso- 5.8 Dierences in the informal sponant represented by nh in most BP dialects. It is always
ken language
[r] in EP, but in most of Brazil, it represents a nasal which nasalizes the preceding vowel
ized semivowel [j],
(early morning).
There are various dierences between European Poras well:[16] manhzinha [m j zj]
tuguese and Brazilian Portuguese, such as the dropping
of the second-person conjugations (and, in some dialects,
Phonetic changes BP did not participate in many of the second-person pronoun itself) in everyday usage
sound changes that later aected EP, particularly of con- and the use of subject pronouns (ele, ela, eles, elas) as
sonants. In BP, /b/, /d/, and // are stops in all positions direct objects. People from Portugal can understand
but are weakened to fricatives [], [], and [] in EP. Brazilian Portuguese well. However, some Brazilians nd
Many dialects of BP maintain syllable-nal [s] and [z] European Portuguese dicult to understand at rst. This
as such, and EP consistently converts them to [] and []. is mainly due to vowel reduction in unstressed syllables
Whether such a change happens in BP is highly variable in European Portuguese: loss of phonemic contrasts, or
according to dialect. Rio de Janeiro is particularly known often, in the case of word-nal e, omission. Speakers of
for such a pronunciation; So Paulo and most Southern EP also introduce more allophonic modications of varidialects are particularly known for lacking it. Elsewhere, ous sounds. Another reason is that Brazilians have almost
such as in the Northeast, it is more likely to happen before no contact with the European variant, but Portuguese are
a consonant than word-nally, and it varies from region used to watching Brazilian television programs and listo region. Some dialects (such as in Pernambuco) have tening to Brazilian music.
5.8.1
Grammar
31
Voc fala ingls?
No falo, no.
Spoken Brazilian usage diers from European usage in
Do you speak English?"
many aspects. The dierences include the placement of
I don't speak [it], no.
clitic pronouns and, in Brazil, the use of subject pronouns
as objects in the third person. Nonstandard verb inections are also common in colloquial Brazilian Portuguese. Sometimes, even a triple negative is possible:
Voc fala ingls?
No. No falo, no
Spoken Portuguese rarely uses the armation adverb sim
(yes) in informal speech. Instead, the usual reply is a
repetition of the verb of the question.
EP:
Foste biblioteca?
Fui (, fui ontem).
BP:
Fui.
or
Tu foste/foi na//pra biblioteca? (Southern
variant)
Fui.
Translation
Translation
Do you speak English?"
Have you gone to the library yet?"
No, I don't.
32
are two skirts in a room and one says, Pega essa saia para
mim (Take this skirt for me), there may be some doubt
about which of them must be taken so one may say Pega
essa a (Take this one there near you) in the original
sense of the use of essa, or Pega essa saia aqui (Take
this one here).
33
34
ian Portuguese and the formal prescriptive variety fullls the basic conditions of Fergusons
denition [of diglossia]...[...] Considering the
diculty encountered by vernacular speakers
to acquire the standard, an understanding of
those relationships appears to have broad educational signicance. The teaching of Portuguese has traditionally meant imparting a
5.10. IMPACT
prescriptive formal standard based on a literary register (Cunha 1985: 24) that is often at
variance with the language with which students
are familiar. As in a diglossic situation, vernacular speakers must learn to read and write in a
dialect they neither speak nor fully understand,
a circumstance that may have a bearing on the
high dropout rate in elementary schools...
According to Bagno (1999) the two variants coexist and
intermingle quite seamlessly, but their status is not clearcut. Brazilian Vernacular is still frowned upon by most
grammarians and language teachers, with only remarkably few linguists championing its cause. Some of this
minority, of which Bagno is an example, appeal to their
readers by their ideas that grammarians would be detractors of the termed Brazilian Vernacular, by naming it a
corrupt form of the pure standard, an attitude which
they classify as linguistic prejudice. Their arguments
include the postulate that the Vernacular form simplies
some of the intricacies of standard Portuguese (verbal
conjugation, pronoun handling, plural forms, etc.).
Bagno denounces the prejudice against the vernacular in
what he terms the 8 Myths":
1. There is a striking uniformity in Brazilian Portuguese
2. A big amount of Brazilians speak Portuguese poorly
while in Portugal people speak it very well
3. Portuguese is dicult to learn and speak
4. People that have had poor education can't speak anything correctly
5. In the state of Maranho people speak a better Portuguese than elsewhere in Brazil
6. We should speak as closely as possible to the written
language
35
comparison, it is easier for many Brazilians to understand someone from a Spanish-speaking South
American country than someone from Portugal because the spoken varieties of Portuguese on either
side of the Atlantic have diverged to the point of
nearly being mutually unintelligible.
3. No language is dicult for those who speak it. Difculty appears when two conditions are met: the
standard language diverges from the vernacular and
a speaker of the vernacular tries to learn the standard version. This divergence is the precise reason why spelling and grammar reforms happen every now and then.
4. People with less education can speak the vernacular
or often several varieties of the vernacular, and they
speak it well. They might, however, have trouble in
speaking Standard Portuguese, but this is due to lack
of experience rather than to any inherent deciency
in their linguistic mastery.
5. The people of Maranho are not generally better
than fellow Brazilians from other states in speaking
Standard Portuguese, especially because that state is
one of the poorest and has one of the lowest literacy
rates.
6. It is the written language that must reect the spoken
and not vice versa: it is not the tail that wags the dog.
7. The knowledge of grammar is intuitive for those
who speak their native languages. Problems arise
when they begin to study the grammar of a foreign
language.
8. Rich and inuential people themselves often do
not follow the grammatical rules of Standard Portuguese. Standard Portuguese is mostly a jewel or
shibboleth for powerless middle-class careers (journalists, teachers, writers, actors, etc.).
7. The knowledge of grammar is essential to the corWhether Bagnos points are valid or not is open to debate,
rect and proper use of a language
especially the solutions he recommends for the problems
8. To master Standard Portuguese is the path to social he claims to have identied. Whereas some agree that
promotion
he has captured the feelings of the Brazilians towards
Brazils linguistic situation well, his book (Linguistic PrejIn opposition to the myths, Bagno counters that:
udice: What it Is, What To Do) has been heavily criticized
by some linguists and grammarians, due to his unortho1. The uniformity of Brazilian Portuguese is just about dox claims, sometimes asserted to be biased or unproven.
what linguistics would predict for such a large country whose population has not, generally, been literate for centuries and which has experienced consid- 5.10 Impact
erable foreign inuence, that is, this uniformity is
more apparent than real.
The cultural inuence of Brazilian Portuguese in the rest
2. Brazilians speak Standard Portuguese poorly be- of the Portuguese-speaking world has greatly increased
cause they speak a language that is suciently dif- in the last decades of the 20th century, due to the popferent from Standard Portuguese so that the lat- ularity of Brazilian music and Brazilian soap operas.
ter sounds almost foreign to them. In terms of Since Brazil joined Mercosul, the South American free
36
trade zone, Portuguese has been increasingly studied as a
foreign language in Spanish-speaking partner countries.
Many words of Brazilian origin (also used in other
Portuguese-speaking countries) have also entered into
English: samba, bossa nova, cruzeiro, milreis and
capoeira. While originally Angolan, the word samba
only became famous worldwide because of its popularity
in Brazil.
After independence in 1822, Brazilian idioms with
African and Amerindian inuences were brought to Portugal by returning Portuguese Brazilians (luso-brasileiros
in Portuguese).
Portuguese language
CELPE-Bras
Gaucho
List of English words of Portuguese origin
(Portuguese) List of word dierences, on the Portuguese Wiktionary
Portuguese grammar
Paulistano
Brazilian Portuguese phrasebook travel guide from
Wikivoyage
5.13 Bibliography
Andrade, Carlos Drummond de (1973), Consso, As impurezas do branco, Rio de Janeiro:
Olympio
Azevedo, Milton (1989), Vernacular Features in
Educated Speech in Brazilian Portuguese, Hispania
72 (4): 862872, doi:10.2307/343564
Kato, Mary (1993), Portugus brasileiro - uma viagem diacrnica, Campinas: Editora da UNICAMP
Lee, M. Kittiya (2005), Conversing in Colony: The
Braslica and the Vulgar in Portuguese America,
1500-1759 (Ph.D. Dissertation) (PDF), Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University
Mateus, Maria Helena Mira; Rodrigues, Celeste
(2003), A vibrante em coda no Portugus Europeu
(PDF), Instituto de Lingustica Terica e Computacional (online)
Mdolo, Marcelo (2001), As duas lnguas do
Brasil: Qual mesmo a lngua que falamos?", in
Pallamin, Vera; Furtado, Joaci Pereira, Conversas
no Ateli: Palestras sobre artes e humanidades, So
Paulo: FAU-USP, pp. 5169
Mota, Maria Alice (2008), A variao dos pronomes
tu e voc" no portugus oral de So Joo da Ponte
(MG) (Ph.D. Dissertation) (PDF), Belo Horizonte:
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
5.14. REFERENCES
37
Perini, Mrio (2002), Modern Portuguese: A Refer- [20] Languages of Brazil - Ethnologue (ISO-3 codes) http://
ence Grammar, New Haven: Yale University Press
www.ethnologue.com/country/br/languages
Pontes, Eunice (1987), O tpico no portugus do
Brasil, Campinas, SP: Pontes Editores
Portuguese (Portugus), Omniglot (online), n.d.
Prista, Alexander da (1979), Say It in Portuguese
(European Usage), New York: Dover
Santos, Viviane Maia dos (2010), A constituio
de corpora orais para a anlise das formas de tratamento, Anais do IX Encontro do CELSUL (PDF),
Palhoa, SC
Silva, e Mattos, Rosa Virgnia (2004), O portugus
do Brasil so dois, So Paulo: Parbola
Vasco, Srgio Leito (2003), Construes de tpico
no portugus brasileiro: Fala popular, Rio de
Janeiro: Crculo Fluminense de Estudos Filolgicos
e Lingsticos, online
5.14 References
[1] Portuguese (Brazil) at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
[2] Nordho, Sebastian; Hammarstrm, Harald; Forkel,
Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). Brazilian Portuguese. Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for
Evolutionary Anthropology.
[3] http://saladeimprensa.ibge.gov.br/en/noticias?view=
noticia&id=1&busca=1&idnoticia=2204
[4] http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm
[5] http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/en_3.3.b.php
[6] Lee (2005)
[7] Chilcote (1967:57)
[8] Hernandes (2000)
[9] Naro & Scherre (2007)
[10] Pontes (1987)
[11] Orsini (2004)
[12] Vasco (2003)
[13] Cunha (2010)
Chapter 6
Portuguese language
Portuguese (portugus or, in full, lngua portuguesa)
is a Romance language and the sole ocial language of Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau,
Mozambique, Portugal, and So Tom and Prncipe.[4]
It also has co-ocial language status in East Timor,
Equatorial Guinea, and Macau. As the result of expansion
during colonial times, a cultural presence of Portuguese
and Portuguese creole speakers are also found in Goa,
Daman and Diu in India;[5] in Batticaloa on the east coast
of Sri Lanka; in the Indonesian island of Flores; and in
Malacca in Malaysia.
6.1 History
Main article: History of the Portuguese language
39
in Brazil[14] and Portugal,[15] and 99.8% of the population of So Tom and Prncipe declared speaking Portuguese in the 1991 census. Perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively,[16] and 85%
are uent.[17] Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, and 60% are
uent, according to the 2007 census.[18] Portuguese is
also spoken natively by 30% of the population in GuineaBissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by
all.[19] No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all
the population is bilingual, and the monolingual population speaks Cape Verdean Creole.
(in Portuguese Comunidade dos Pases de Lngua Portuguesa, with the Portuguese acronym CPLP) consists of
the eight independent countries that have Portuguese as
an ocial language: Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, East
Timor, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal and So
Tom and Prncipe.[4]
40
6.2.2
6.2.4 Future
According to estimates by UNESCO, Portuguese is the
fastest-growing European language after English and the
language has, according to the newspaper The Portugal
News publishing data given from UNESCO, the highest potential for growth as an international language in
southern Africa and South America.[50] The Portuguesespeaking African countries are expected to have a combined population of 83 million, and Brazil 350 million
by 2050. In total, the Portuguese-speaking countries will
have about 433[51] million people by the same year.[50]
Portuguese is truly a globalized language spoken ocially
in 5 continents, and as a second language by millions
worldwide.
Since 1991, when Brazil signed into the economic community of Mercosul with other South American nations,
Population of countries and juris- such as Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Venezuela,
dictions of Portuguese ocial or co- Portuguese is either mandatory, or taught, in the schools
of those South American countries.
ocial language
6.3. DIALECTS
41
42
4.
Fluminense A broad dialect with many variants spoken in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Esprito
6.3. DIALECTS
from other variants in the metropolitan cities along
the coasts. It can be divided in two regional variants, one that includes the northern Maranho and
southern of Piau, and other that goes from Cear to
Alagoas.
8. Nortista or amazofonia Most of Amazon Basin
states i.e. Northern Brazil. Before the 20th century,
most people from the nordestino area eeing the
droughts and their associated poverty settled here,
so it has some similarities with the Portuguese dialect there spoken. The speech in and around the
city of Belm has a more European avor in phonology, prosody and grammar.
9. Paulistano Variants spoken around Greater So
Paulo in its maximum denition and more easterly
areas of So Paulo state, as well perhaps educated
speech from anywhere in the state of So Paulo
(where it coexists with caipira). Caipira is the hinterland sociolect of much of the Central-Southern
half of Brazil, nowadays conservative only in the rural areas and associated with them, that has a historically low prestige in cities as Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Belo Horizonte, and until some years ago, in
So Paulo itself. Sociolinguistics, or what by times
is described as 'linguistic prejudice', often correlated
with classism,[70][71][72] is a polemic topic in the entirety of the country since the times of Adoniran
Barbosa. Also, the Paulistano accent was heavily inuenced by the presence of immigrants in the
city of So Paulo, especially the Italians.
10. Sertanejo Center-Western states, and also much
of Tocantins and Rondnia. It is closer to mineiro,
caipira, nordestino or nortista depending on the location.
43
13. Carioca Not a dialect, but sociolects of the uminense variant spoken in an area roughly corresponding to Greater Rio de Janeiro. It appeared after locals came in contact with the Portuguese aristocracy amidst the Portuguese royal family ed in
the early 19th century. There is actually a continuum between Vernacular countryside accents and
the carioca sociolect, and the educated speech (in
Portuguese norma culta, which most closely resembles other Brazilian Portuguese standards but with
marked recent Portuguese inuences, the nearest
ones among the countrys dialects along orianopolitano), so that not all people native to the state of Rio
de Janeiro speak the said sociolect, but most carioca
speakers will use the standard variant not inuenced
by it that is rather uniform around Brazil depending
on context (emphasis or formality, for example).
14. Brasiliense used in Braslia and its metropolitan
area.[73] It is not considered a dialect, but more of a
regional variant often deemed to be closer to uminense than the dialect commonly spoken in most
of Gois, sertanejo.
15. Arco do desorestamento or serra amaznica
Known in its region as the accent of the migrants,
it has similarities with caipira, sertanejo and often
sulista that make it diering from amazofonia (in
the opposite group of Brazilian dialects, in which it
is placed along nordestino, baiano, mineiro and uminense). It is the most recent dialect, which appeared by the settlement of families from various
other Brazilian regions attracted by the cheap land
oer in recently deforested areas.[74][75]
16. Recifense used in Recife and its metropolitan
area.
11. Sulista The variants spoken in the areas between 6.3.2 Portugal
the northern regions of Rio Grande do Sul and
southern regions of So Paulo state, encompassing
1.
Micaelense (Aores) (So Miguel)Azores.
most of southern Brazil. The city of Curitiba does
2.
AlentejanoAlentejo (Alentejan Portuguese)
have a fairly distinct accent as well, and a relative
majority of speakers around and in Florianpolis
3.
AlgarvioAlgarve (there is a particular dialect in
also speak this variant (many speak orianopolitano
a small part of western Algarve).
or manezinho da ilha instead, related to the Eu4.
Alto-MinhotoNorth of Braga (hinterland).
ropean Portuguese dialects spoken in Azores and
Madeira). Speech of northern Paran is closer to
5.
Baixo-Beiro; Alto-AlentejanoCentral Portugal
that of inland So Paulo.
(hinterland).
12. Florianopolitano Variants heavily inuenced by
European Portuguese spoken in Florianpolis city
(due to a heavy immigration movement from Portugal, mainly its insular regions) and much of its
metropolitan area, Grande Florianpolis, said to be
a continuum between those whose speech most resemble sulista dialects and those whose speech most
resemble uminense and European ones, called, often pejoratively, manezinho da ilha.
6.
7.
44
8.
Madeirense (Madeiran)Madeira.
9.
NortenhoRegions of the districts of Braga, When the elided consonant was n, it often nasalized the
Porto and parts of Aveiro.
preceding vowel: cf. Lat. manum (hand), ranam
(frog), bonum (good), Port. mo, ra, bo (now mo,
10.
TransmontanoTrs-os-Montes e Alto Douro.
r, bom). This process was the source of most of the
languages distinctive nasal diphthongs. In particular, the
Latin endings -anem, -anum and -onem became -o in
6.3.3 Other countries and dependencies
most cases, cf. Lat. canis (dog), germanus (brother),
ratio (reason) with Modern Port. co, irmo, razo,
The Portuguese language is also the only Romance language that developed the clitic case mesoclisis: cf. dar
East Timor Timorense (East Timorese te-ei (I'll give thee), amar-te-ei (I'll love you), contactPortuguese)
los-ei (I'll contact them). It was also the only Romance
language to develop the syntactic pluperfect past tense":
Guinea-Bissau Guineense (Guinean Por- Slavic languages, Hungarian and Japanese only.
tuguese)
Macau
Mozambique
Portuguese)
6.4 Vocabulary
6.4. VOCABULARY
45
later the participation of Portugal in the Age of Discovery, it has some Gallaecian words and adopted loanwords
from all over the world.
46
Moorish Iberia.They are often recognizable by the initial Arabic article a(l)-, and include many common words
such as aldeia village from alai`a (or from
Edictum Rothari: aldii, aldias),[76] alface lettuce from
alkhass, armazm warehouse from almakhzan, and azeite olive oil from azzait.
Starting in the 15th century, the Portuguese maritime explorations led to the introduction of many loanwords from
Asian languages. For instance, catana cutlass from
Japanese katana and ch tea from Chinese ch.
From the 16th to the 19th centuries, because of the role of
Portugal as intermediary in the Atlantic slave trade, and
the establishment of large Portuguese colonies in Angola,
Mozambique, and Brazil, Portuguese acquired several
words of African and Amerind origin, especially names
for most of the animals and plants found in those territories. While those terms are mostly used in the former
colonies, many became current in European Portuguese
as well. From Kimbundu, for example, came kifumate >
cafun head caress (Brazil), kusula > caula youngest
child (Brazil), marimbondo tropical wasp (Brazil), and
kubungula > bungular to dance like a wizard (Angola). From South America came batata "potato", from
Taino; anans and abacaxi, from TupiGuarani nan and
Tupi ib cati, respectively (two species of pineapple), and
pipoca "popcorn" from Tupi and tucano "toucan" from
Guarani tucan.
Main articles: Iberian Romance languages, GalicianPortuguese and Comparison of Spanish and Portuguese
Portuguese belongs to the West Iberian branch of the
Romance languages, and it has special ties with the following members of this group:
Galician, Fala and portunhol do pampa (the way riverense and its sibling dialects are referred to in Portuguese), its closest relatives.
Mirandese, Leonese, Asturian, Extremaduran and
Cantabrian (Astur-Leonese languages). Mirandese
is the only recognised regional language spoken in
Portugal (beside Portuguese, the only ocial language in Portugal).
47
learned acquisition process, but nevertheless facilitates
communication. There is an emerging literature focused
on such phenomena (including informal attempts of standardization of the linguistic continua and their usage).[87]
Map showing mostly contemporary West Iberian and OccitanoRomance languages, as well many of their mainland European
dialects (take note that areas colored green, gold or pink/purple
represent languages deemed endangered by UNESCO, so this
may be outdated in less than a few decades). It shows European Portuguese, Galician, Eonavian, Mirandese and the Fala
as not only closely related but as dialect continuum, though it excludes dialects spoken in insular Portugal (Azores and Madeira
Canaries is not shown either).
48
Alamedilla, Cedillo (Cedilho), Herrera de Alcntara
(Ferreira d'Alcntara) and Olivenza (Olivena), but in
these municipalities, what is spoken is actually Portuguese, not disputed as such in the mainstream.
It should be noticed that the diversity of dialects of the
Portuguese language is known since the time of medieval
Portuguese-Galician language when it coexisted with the
Lusitanian-Mozarabic dialect, spoken in the south of Portugal. The dialectal diversity becomes more evident in
the work of Ferno d'Oliveira, in the Grammatica da
Lingoagem Portuguesa, (1536), where he remarks that
the people of Portuguese regions of Beira, Alentejo, Estremadura, and Entre Douro e Minho, all speak dierently from each other. Also Contador d'Argote (1725)
distinguishes three main varieties of dialects: the local dialects, the dialects of time, and of profession (work jargon). Of local dialects he highlights ve main dialects:
the dialect of Estremadura, of Entre-Douro e Minho, of
Beira, of Algarve and of Trs-os-Montes. He also makes
reference to the overseas dialects, the rustic dialects, the
poetic dialect and that of prose.[91]
6.6 Phonology
Main article: Portuguese phonology
Portuguese phonology is similar to those of languages
such as French (especially that of Quebec), the GalloItalic languages, Occitan, Catalan and Franco-Provenal,
unlike that of Spanish, which is similar to those of
Sardinian and Southern Italian dialects. Some would de-
6.7. GRAMMAR
49
6.6.1
Vowels
i,
u,
e,
o,
,
Like Catalan and German, Portuguese uses vowel quality to contrast stressed syllables with unstressed syllables:
isolated vowels tend to be raised, and in some cases centralized, when unstressed.
6.6.2
Consonants
Phonetic notes
is typically a uvular trill []; however, a pronunciation as a voiced uvular fricative [] may be becoming dominant in urban areas. There is also a realization as a voiceless uvular fricative [], and the original pronunciation as an alveolar trill [r] also remains
very common in various dialects.[107] A common realization of the word-initial // in the Lisbon accent
is a voiced uvular trill fricative [].[108] In Brazil, //
can be velar, uvular, or glottal and may be voiceless
unless between voiced sounds;[109] it is usually pronounced as a voiceless velar fricative [x], a voiceless
glottal fricative [h] or voiceless uvular fricative [].
See also Guttural R in Portuguese.
/s/ and /z/ are normally lamino-alveolar, as in English. However, a number of dialects in northern Portugal pronounce /s/ and /z/ as apico-alveolar
sibilants (sounding somewhat like a soft [] or []),
as in the Romance languages of northern Iberia. A
very few northeastern Portugal dialects still maintain
the medieval distinction between apical and laminal
sibilants (written s/ss and c//z, respectively).
As a phoneme, /t/ only occurs in loanwords, with a
tendency for speakers to substitute in //. However,
[t] is an allophone of /t/ before /i/ in a number of
Brazilian dialects. Similarly, [d] is an allophone of
/d/ in the same contexts.
In northern and central Portugal, the voiced stops
/b/, /d/, // are usually lenited to fricatives [],
[], and [] respectively, except at the beginning of
words, or after nasal vowels;[110][111] a similar process occurs in Spanish.
6.7 Grammar
Main article: Portuguese grammar
50
Portuguese poetry
Portuol
6.10 References
The personal innitive: innitives can inect according to their subject in person and number, often
showing who is expected to perform a certain action;
cf. melhor voltares It is better [for you] to go
back, melhor voltarmos It is better [for us] to go
back. Perhaps for this reason, innitive clauses replace subjunctive clauses more often in Portuguese
than in other Romance languages.
6.8.1
Spelling reforms
Angolan literature
Brazilian literature
European Portuguese
6.10. REFERENCES
51
[43] Languages in Europe Ocial EU Languages. EUROPA web portal. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 12 October 2009.
[23] ~500,000 use it as their mother tongue in the 2012 estimate, see Rpartition des trangers par nationalit
[24] Japo: imigrantes brasileiros popularizam lngua portuguesa (in Portuguese). 2008.
[25] 4.6% according to the 2001 census, see. Cia.gov. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[26] Carin Pretorius Developed CEIT Development CC.
The Namibian. The Namibian.
[27] Paraguay Ethnologue.
[28] Languages of Macau.
[29] Fibbi, Rosita (2010). Les Portugais en Suisse (PDF).
Oce fdral des migrations. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
[30] See Languages of Venezuela.
[31] Carvalho, Ana Maria (2010). Portuguese in the USA.
In Potowski, Kim. Language Diversity in the USA. Cambridge University Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-521-745338.
[32] Portuguese Language in Goa. Colaco.net. Retrieved 21
April 2010.
[33] The Portuguese Experience: The Case of Goa, Daman
and Diu. Rjmacau.com. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
[34] 1.500 pessoas estudam portugus em Goa. Revistamacau.com. 2 June 2014. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
[35] Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. (20 July 2010). El portugus
ser el tercer idioma ocial de la Repblica de Guinea
Ecuatorial Pgina Ocial del Gobierno de la Repblica
de Guinea Ecuatorial. Guineaecuatorialpress.com. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
[46] Portuguese will be mandatory in high school (in Spanish). 21 January 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
[47] Portuguese language will be option in the ocial
Venezuelan teachings (in Portuguese). 24 May 2009.
Retrieved 13 July 2010.
[48] Zambia will adopt the Portuguese language in their Basic
school (in Portuguese). 26 May 2009. Retrieved 13 July
2010.
[49] Congo will start to teach Portuguese in schools (in Portuguese). 4 June 2010. Archived from the original on 7
August 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
[50] Portuguese language gaining popularity. Anglopress
Edices e Publicidade Lda. 5 May 2007. Retrieved 18
May 2011.
[51] http://www.exactinvest.dk/media/2466/mapping_
speakers_of_portuguese_around_the_world.pdf
[52] Leach, Michael (2007). talking Portuguese; China and
East Timor. Arena Magazine. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
[53] (Portuguese) The process of Norm change for the good
pronunciation of the Portuguese language in chant and
dramatics in Brazil during 1938, 1858 and 2007
[54] (Portuguese) Carioca accent is the standard The socalled supremacy of the carioca speech, an issue of
norm
52
[75] Fala NORTE. Fala UNASP Centro Universitrio Adventista de So Paulo. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
Retrieved 30 May
6.10. REFERENCES
53
6.10.1 Literature
54
6.10.3
Reference dictionaries
6.10.4
Linguistic studies
Chapter 7
History of Portugal
The history of Portugal dates back to the Early Middle
Ages. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it ascended to the
status of a world power during Europes "Age of Discovery" as it built up a vast empire, including possessions in
South America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. Over the following two centuries, Portugal kept most of its colonies,
but gradually lost much of its wealth and status as the
Dutch, English, and French took an increasing share of
the spice and slave trades by surrounding or conquering
the widely scattered Portuguese trading posts and territories.
In 1910, there was a revolution that deposed the monarchy. Amid corruption, repression of the church, and
the near bankruptcy of the state, a military coup in
1926 installed a dictatorship that remained until another
coup in 1974. The new government instituted sweeping
democratic reforms and granted independence to all of
Portugals African colonies in 1975.
Early history
Prehistory
7.1 Etymology
56
oldest human fossils so far discovered. Homo sapiens took several centuries. The Roman provinces that covsapiens arrived in Portugal in around 35,000 years ago ered present-day Portugal were Lusitania in the south and
and spread rapidly throughout the country.[7]
Gallaecia in the north.
Pre-Celtic tribes inhabited Portugal leaving a remarkable
cultural footprint. The Cynetes developed a written language leaving stelae mainly found in the south of Portugal.
7.2.2
Ancient history
CI
S
SE
DE
BELLI
rp
Ca
teta
Bas
RT
ES
SII
ani
Turdet
TA
CUNETES
Gadir
CIL
IC
LT
CE
BIC
EN
Ma
CESSETANI
lak
a
xs
de
ra
NI
Akra
Leuke
Carthago
Nova
n Sea
iterranea
Med
re
ea
l
Ba
ni
sta
Ab
Se
Emporion
I
AN
T
YE
LA
av
ni
Baria
PUNICI
I
NI
TA
CE
Ile
ni
eta
LANCIENC
ES
OPIDANI
ni
ta
si
SES
MIROBRIGEN
nte
Co
Oretani
DEITA
Counei
LA
Rhode
AUSETANI
Ebusus
MENTESANI
RM
GE
li
Turdu
et
I
ISTAN
LOBETANI
I
AN
Indike
tes
AU
CA
LANCIENC
TRANSCU ES
DANI
NI
Celtici
BERG
Edetani
OLCADES
Turd
IGAEDITA
Lu
ani
TURD
VETE ULI
RES
IC O
C
ppid
CALVRI
COERENSES
CALONT
IENSES
TA
NI
TURBOLETAE
ri
uli O
be
lti
ne
TAPORI
ELBOCORI
ANDOSI
NI
CERETANI
on
es
TITTI
rg
Ile
NE
ae
rc
ALBI
LO
UG
EI
Autr
SO
LL
AE
CI
EAN
LU
AREVACI
Ce
PAESURI
tto
ANT
PELENDONE
Ve
ATL
Berones
ei
od
igi
IO
OS
s
re
tu
Vas
Tu
rm
ca
Vac
es
con
ni
ta
ce
Ia
EN
Cantabri
As
aec
Call
AR
PAESICI SELINI
AE
EB
TR
RI
NE
RO
RI
PO
AR
CO
TAMARICI
I
CANI
IC
I SEURRI
RATII
MORE
AR
ED
SUPE
NI BA LEMAVI
AM
I
LE
T
C
CI
R
R
S
LI
PE
MA
SE
BIBA
SU
TA
INTERAMICI GIGURRI
IEN S
ES
E
NC
ENI
COELERNI
PR
LA ENS
HELL
EQUAESI
I
N
OV
U
LIMICI
GR QU
ED
ARQU TAMAGANI
BA
I
ERNI
AE
LEUN
EL
BI
DUNI
ZO
UR
CALA
SE
SI
ARI
CO
S
BRAC
BO NSE
AE NIE
BA
igo
nes
Ca
ris
tii
Va
rd
ull
i
AN
EN
NIS
NC
RIN
O
RC
CO
CO
ES
AR
RO
AD NI
DO
VI
VA
RR
CIB INAM
A
AR
CI RINI
EG
I
ONE
S
CI
Linguistic groups:
Turdetanian
Tartessian (residual)
Celtic
Iberian
Aquitanian (Proto-Basque)
Indo-european (pre-Celtic)
Ethno-geographic groups:
Turdetani
MANTESANI
Major groups
Secondary communities
The Roman Provinces Lusitania and Gallaecia, after the reorganization of Diocletian AD 298
Phoenician / Carthaginian
Greek
A pedra formosa
57
58
creased. In 585 the Visigothic King Liuvigild conquered in what was to become Portugal, they mainly consisted
Braga and annexed Gallaecia. From that time, the Iberian of the old Roman province of Lusitania (Central and
Peninsula was unied under a Visigothic Kingdom.[15]
Southern regions) while Gallaecia (northern regions) reWith the Visigoths settled in the newly formed kingdom, maining unsubdued. Until the Berber revolt in the 730s
a new class emerged that had been unknown in Roman al-Andalus was treated as a dependency of Umayyad
until the
times: a nobility, which played a tremendous social and North Africa. Subsequently, links were strained
[18]
Caliphate
was
overthrown
in
the
late
740s.
political role during the Middle Ages. It was also under the Visigoths that the Church began to play a very
important part within the state. Since the Visigoths did
not learn Latin from the local people, they had to rely on
Catholic bishops to continue the Roman system of governance. The laws established during the Visigothic monarchy were thus made by councils of bishops, and the clergy
started to emerge as a high-ranking class.
7.5.2
59
60
seas expansion possible and led to great advances in ge- Joo Gonalves Zarco and Tristo Vaz Teixeira, were
ographic, mathematical, scientic knowledge and naval driven by a storm to an island that they called Porto Santo
technology.
(Holy Port) in gratitude for their rescue from the shipwreck. In 1419, Joo Gonalves Zarco disembarked on
the Island of Madeira. Uninhabited Madeira was colonized
by the Portuguese in 1420.[27]
7.6 Naval exploration and PorBetween 1427 and 1431, most of the Azores were discovered and these uninhabited islands were colonized by
the Portuguese in 1445. Portuguese expeditions may
have attempted to colonize the Canary Islands as early
Main articles: History of Portugal (14151578) and as 1336, but the Crown of Castile objected to any Portuguese claim to them. Castile began its own conquest
Portuguese Empire
During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal became of the Canaries in 1402. Castile expelled the last Portuguese from the Canary islands in 1459, and they would
eventually become part of the Spanish Empire.[28]
tuguese Empire
centuries)
(15th16th
These setbacks did not deter the Portuguese from pursuing their exploratory eorts. In 1448, on the small island
of Arguim o the coast of Mauritania, an important castle was built to function as a feitoria, or trading post, for
commerce with inland Africa. Some years before, the
rst African gold was brought to Portugal, circumventing
the Arab caravans that crossed the Sahara. Some time
later, the caravels explored the Gulf of Guinea, which
led to the discovery of several uninhabited islands: Cape
Verde, Ferno Po, So Tom, Prncipe and Annobn.[29]
7.6.1
61
Discovery of the sea route to India local Sephardic Jews, along with those refugees who had
come from Castile and Aragon after 1492. In addition,
and the Treaty of Tordesillas
62
7.7.1
63
Decline of the Portuguese Empire Because of this, as well as the general strain on the nances of the Spanish throne as a result of the Thirty
under the Philippine Dynasty
Years War, the Duke of Braganza, one of the great native noblemen and a descendant of King Manuel I, was
proclaimed King of Portugal as John IV on 1 December 1640, and a war of independence against Spain was
launched. The governors of Ceuta did not accept the new
king; rather, they maintained their allegiance to Philip III.
Although Portugal had substantially attained its independence in 1640, the Spanish continued to try to re-assert
their control for the next twenty-eight years, only recognizing the new Portuguese dynasty in 1668.
In the 17th century, many Portuguese emigrated to Brazil.
From 1709, John V prohibited emigration, since Portugal
had lost a sizable proportion of its population. Brazil was
elevated to a vice-kingdom.
64
Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more power, and Sebastio de Melo became a
powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his
Sebastio Jos de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal, Count enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with
of Oeiras
the high nobility became frequent. In 1758 Joseph I was
wounded in an attempted assassination. The Tvora famPortugal and in the Portuguese colonies in India; reorga- ily and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated and executed
nized the army and the navy; restructured the University after a quick trial. The Jesuits were expelled from the
of Coimbra, and ended discrimination against dierent country and their assets conscated by the crown. Sebastio de Melo showed no mercy and prosecuted every
Christian sects in Portugal.
person involved, even women and children. This was the
nal stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy and
ensured the victory of the Minister against his enemies.
Based upon his swift resolve, Joseph I made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759.
7.9.2
65
she came of age she would marry his brother, Miguel.
Dissatisfaction at Pedros constitutional reforms led the
absolutist faction of landowners and the church to proclaim Miguel king in February 1828. This led to the
Liberal Wars in which Pedro eventually forced Miguel to
abdicate and go into exile in 1834 and place his daughter
on throne as Queen Maria II.
The 1890 British Ultimatum was delivered to Portugal
on 11 January of that year, an attempt to force the retreat of Portuguese military forces in the land between the
Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola (most
of present-day Zimbabwe and Zambia). The area had
been claimed by Portugal, which included it in its "Pink
Map", but this clashed with British aspirations to create
a railroad link between Cairo and Cape Town, thereby
linking its colonies from the north of Africa to the very
south. This diplomatic clash lead to several waves of
protest and prompted the downfall of the Portuguese government. The 1890 British Ultimatum was considered by
Portuguese historians and politicians at that time to be
the most outrageous and infamous action of the British
against her oldest ally.[61]
After 1815, the Portuguese expanded their trading ports
along the African coast, moving inland to take control
of Angola and Mozambique. The slave trade was abolished in 1836, in part because many foreign slave ships
were ying the Portuguese ag. In Portuguese India,
trade ourished in the colony of Goa, with its subsidiary
colonies of Macau, near Hong Kong on the China coast,
and Timor, north of Australia. The Portuguese successfully introduced Catholicism and the Portuguese language
into their colonies, while most settlers continued to head
to Brazil.[62][63]
66
7.11.1
Religion
A move was made to abolish traditional political parties and to alter the existing mode of national representation in parliament (which, it was claimed, exacerbated divisions within the Ptria) through the creation
of a corporative Senate, the founding of a single-party
(the National Republican Party), and the attribution of a
mobilising function to the leader. The state carved out
an economically interventionist role for itself while, at
the same time, repressing working-class movements and
leftist republicans. Sidnio Pais also attempted to restore public order and to overcome some of the rifts of
7.11.2 Constitution
the recent past, making the republic more acceptable to
A republican constitution was approved in 1911, inaugu- monarchists and Catholics.
rating a parliamentary regime with reduced presidential
powers and two chambers of parliament.[68] The Republic provoked important fractures within Portuguese soci- 7.11.3 Political instability
ety, notably among the essentially monarchist rural population, in the trade unions, and in the Church. Even the The vacuum of power created by Sidnio Paiss
PRP had to endure the secession of its more moderate el- murder[79] on 14 December 1918, led the country to
ements, who formed conservative republican parties like a brief civil war. The monarchys restoration was prothe Evolutionist Party and the Republican Union. In spite claimed in the north of Portugal (known as the Monarchy
of these splits, the PRP, led by Afonso Costa, preserved of the North) on 19 January 1919, and four days later a
its dominance, largely due to a brand of clientelist politics monarchist insurrection broke out in Lisbon. A repubinherited from the monarchy.[69] In view of these tactics, lican coalition government, led by Jos Relvas, coordia number of opposition forces were forced to resort to vi- nated the struggle against the monarchists by loyal army
olence in order to enjoy the fruits of power. There are units and armed civilians. After a series of clashes the
few recent studies of this period of the Republics exis- monarchists were denitively chased from Oporto on 13
tence, known as the old Republic. Nevertheless, an essay February 1919. This military victory allowed the PRP to
by Vasco Pulido Valente should be consulted (1997a), as return to government and to emerge triumphant from the
67
elections held later that year, having won the usual abso- from the contest with an absolute majority. Discontent
lute majority.
with this situation had not, however, disappeared. Numerous accusations of corruption, and the manifest failure to resolve pressing social concerns wore down the
more visible PRP leaders while making the oppositions
attacks more deadly. At the same time, moreover, all political parties suered from growing internal factionalism,
especially the PRP itself. The party system was fractured
and discredited.[69][81]
This is clearly shown by the fact that regular PRP victories at the ballot box did not lead to stable government. Between 1910 and 1926 there were forty-ve governments. The opposition of presidents to single-party
governments, internal dissent within the PRP, the partys
almost non-existent internal discipline, and its desire to
group together and lead all republican forces made any
governments task practically impossible. Many dierent
formulas were attempted, including single-party governments, coalitions, and presidential executives, but none
succeeded. Force was clearly the sole means open to
the opposition if the PRP wanted to enjoy the fruits of
power.[82][83]
68
7.11.5
7.12.2
World War II
7.12.3
Colonies
69
its Overseas Provinces (Provncias Ultramarinas in Portuguese) in Africa (Portuguese Mozambique, Portuguese
Angola, Portuguese Guinea, Portuguese Cape Verde and
Portuguese So Tom and Prncipe). Nearly 1 million
Portuguese or persons of Portuguese descent left these
former colonies as refugees.[99]
In that same year, Indonesia invaded and annexed the Portuguese province of Portuguese Timor (East Timor) in
Asia before independence could be granted. The massive
exodus of the Portuguese military and citizens from Angola and Mozambique, would prompt an era of chaos and
severe destruction in those territories after independence
from Portugal in 1975. From May 1974 to the end of the
1970s, over a million Portuguese citizens from Portugals
African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and
Mozambique) left those territories as destitute refugees
the retornados.[100][101]
The newly independent countries were ravaged by brutal
civil wars in the following decades the Angolan Civil
War (19752002) and Mozambican Civil War (1977
1992) responsible for millions of deaths and refugees.
The Asian dependency of Macau, after an agreement in
1986, was returned to Chinese sovereignty in 1999. Portugal applied international pressure to secure East Timors
independence from Indonesia, as East Timor was still
legally a Portuguese dependency, and recognized as such
by the United Nations. After a referendum in 1999, East
Timor voted for independence, which Portugal recognized in 2002.
With the 197576 independence of its colonies (apart
from Macau), the 560-year-old Portuguese Empire effectively ended. Simultaneously 15 years of war eort
also came to an end; many Portuguese returned from the
colonies (the retornados) and came to comprise a sizeable
proportion of the population: approximately 580,000 of
Portugals 9.8 million citizens in 1981.[102] This opened
new paths for the countrys future just as others closed. In
1986, Portugal entered the European Economic Community and left the European Free Trade Association which
had been founded by Portugal and its partners in 1960.
The country joined the euro in 1999. The Portuguese
Empire ended de facto in 1999 when Macau was returned
to China, and de jure in 2002 when East Timor became
independent.
70
rowing costs, forcing Lisbon to seek a bailout. Portugal [15] Koller, Erwin; Laitenberger, Hugo (1998). Schwaben.
ISBN 9783823350910.
then agreed a three-year, 78-billion-euro ($116 billion)
bailout with the European Union and IMF. In 2013, Portugal recorded all-time high debt levels, 129 per cent of [16] Knutsen, Torbjrn L (1999). The Rise & Fall of World
Orders. ISBN 9780719040580.
the countrys GDP.
[17] Disney (2009), p. 53
[18] Disney (2009), pp. 5354
Monuments of Portugal
Presidents of Portugal
7.15 Notes
ISBN
[4] http://www.faclair.com/?txtSearch=Cala
[10] http://www.portugalromano.com/category/
tema-exploracao-mineira/
[12] http://www.portugalromano.com/
[13] http://www.portugalromano.com/category/
cidades-romanas-em-portugal/
[14] Anderson, James Maxwell (2000). The History of Portugal. ISBN 9780313311062.
7.15. NOTES
71
[46]
[47]
[59] http://www.arqnet.pt/portal/pessoais/castelobramco_
comentarios.html
[60] Ertl, Alan W. (2008). Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Precis of Continental Integration. Dissertation.com. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-59942-9830.
[61] Joo Ferreira Duarte, The Politics of Non-Translation: A
Case Study in Anglo-Portuguese Relations
[62] Livermore (1969), pp. 299306
[63] Gervase Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire,
18251975: A Study in Economic Imperialism (1985)
[64] Wheeler, 1972
[65] Pulido Valente, 1982
[66] Oliveira Marques, 1991
[67] Payne, A history of Spain and Portugal (1973) 2: 559
[68] Miranda, 2001
[69] Lopes, 1994
[70] Teixeira, 1996a
[71] Ribeiro de Meneses, 2000
72
Maxwell, Kenneth. Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge University Press, 1995)
[102] Andrea L. Smith (August 1, 2002). Europes Invisible Migrants. ISBN 905356571X. Thus among the 580,000 Portuguese enumerated in the 1981 census who had lived in
the African colonies prior to 1975, 60 percent had been
born in Portugal.
7.15.1
Bibliography
7.16.1 Empire
Boxer, Charles R.. The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 14151825 (1969)
Clarence-Smith, William Gervase. The Third Portuguese Empire, 18251975: A Study in Economic
Imperialism (1985)
Crowley, Roger. Conquerors: How Portugal Forged
the First Global Empire (2015) online review
Disney, A.R. A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 2: From Beginnings to 1807:
the Portuguese empire (2009) excerpt and text search
Elbl, Martin Malcolm. Portuguese Tangier (1471
1662): Colonial Urban Fabric as Cross-Cultural
Skeleton (Baywolf Press, 2013) excerpt and text
search
Newitt, Malyn. The First Portuguese Colonial Empire (University of Exeter Press, 1986) online
Paquette, Gabriel. Imperial Portugal in the Age
of Atlantic Revolutions: The Luso-Brazilian World,
c. 17701850 (Cambridge University Press, 2013).
466 pp. online review
Russell-Wood, A. J.R. The Portuguese Empire
14151808 (Manchester, 1992),
Jorge Nascimiento Rodrigues/Tessaleno Devezas,
Pioneers of Globalization - Why the Portuguese Surprised the World, Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978989-615-056-3
7.16.2 Historiography
Campos Matos, Srgio. History of Historiography
and National Memory in Portugal, History Compass
(Oct 2012) 10#10 pp 765777.
de Carvalho Homem, Armando Lus. A. H. de
Oliveira Marques (19332007): Historiography and
Citizenship, E-Journal of Portuguese History (Winter 2007) 5#2 pp 19.
73
74
Text
75
76
stopreststop, Susana2807, FifthMore~enwiki, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Alyssakorea, RenatoDep, Alcacer1, Xqbot, XX unfunfriday
Xx, TechBot, Lusci, DSisyphBot, Winkpolve, Ad JSF, Coentor, Lordofmidgard, Patrickhernandez, Miguel in Portugal, Almabot, Francisco Paiva Junior, GrouchoBot, Moalli, Hneto, Alumnum, Mert236, RibotBOT, Cgnk, Uberlololanon, Shadowjams, Spinach Monster,
CortezFL, A. di M., Dr. Klim, SD5, Ferquar, Flarkins, Shant001, Rafabozzolla, FrescoBot, Joeshaw101, LucienBOT, Chronus, AlexanderKaras, VS6507, Mistakender, InspectorSands, LusoCelt, Markeilz, Outback the koala, Filipo, Mandersbubbles, I dream of horses,
PHGDAL, Peroxwhy2gen, Elockid, El estremeu, FILWISE, A8UDI, RedBot, MastiBot, Correctman, Bgpaulus, Cnwilliams, FoxBot,
Pdebee, Popoto, Cagalosgitanoles, Trappist the monk, Sweet xx, Bg1fpx, Prosist, Jonkerz, Zakawer, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, SeoMac,
Varandasi, Ghraby, IRISZOOM, Tbhotch, Nuvolet, Obankston, TjBot, IANVS, , EmausBot, John of Reading, Jeontheworld, WikitanvirBot, Dewritech, GoingBatty, User Hozro, Freeportuguese, Stickybean, K matt thos, Tommy2010, Hellcows, Dcirovic, K6ka, Chiton
magnicus, Evanh2008, ZroBot, LuzoGraal, Illegitimate Barrister, Lellellelle, F, PotatoBot, Jasantunes, Cristiano Toms, Subtropicalman, Niveknospmoht, Redav, Ebrambot, Pan Brerus, H3llBot, Chelschamplin, SporkBot, Xoil, Neddy1234, Alexander Vigo, Staszek
Lem, Jbribeiro1, Phastolph, Brandmeister, Jun Nored, Donner60, Dogfacebob, Lacobrigo, SouthRand, Rambling Vine, ElockidAlternate, Santista~enwiki, ChuispastonBot, SunnyInHouston, Hjxkyw, Hallel, Iketsi, Sin un nomine, Therewillbehotcake, Lguipontes, Pignoof,
Archiver of Records, ClueBot NG, Coxinho, Jack Greenmaven, Kikichugirl, Fer(di)nand(o) Sant, Maipe6917, Frietjes, Djodjo666, Ungoliant MMDCCLXIV, O.Koslowski, Angelo Michael, Costesseyboy, Rats-Pasngeld Rennab, Alan McBrazil Burger, Ikaaros, Myportuguesespace11, Curb Chain, Hkzense, Titodutta, Wbm1058, Zyztem2000, BG19bot, Jonatan argento, Wasbeer, TCN7JM, Sydneyslavitt123,
Tito Reinaldo, Marcocapelle, Rm1271, Cncmaster, Susomoinhos, Viller the Great, CitationCleanerBot, Ollieinc, Matheus Winchester,
Rahulmothiya, Gibbja, Vvven, Jonnydennis10, BattyBot, Waterboy122, Mr.StateOfShock, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Xyzspaniel, IceBrotherhood, Esszet, Lingu teacher, JYBot, Gustavorehermann, Paxti, Delotrooladoo, Dexbot, Indiasummer95, Rocketman55, Hmainsbot1, Spirit of Eagle, Mogism, TheIrishWarden, Devon Werkhise, Lusonovo, Mr. Ajax, Yo222, JustAMuggle, Loup Solitaire 81, Jolivien,
Gjhfgsdf, CsDix, Nitpicking polish, Zalunardo8, Caus Gracchus, Rememusa, Lfdder, Joeystanley, Abrahamic Faiths, QuantoAltoPossoVolare, Braziluk2, Fortis est Veritas, Mac l, Haminoon, Srt PiriLimPomPom, Chukwizy, Callmemirela, Rauzaruku, Ginsuloft, Bronx
Discount Liquor, SJ Defender, Chipperdude15, 15petedc, Moonchld9, Moirawiki, Monkbot, Renatorbrasil, I.am.jmm, Teddyktchan,
Vincius94, Rakhshandaa, Guardianangelservicedogs, Peter238, Puertagustavo99, Zeiimer, Ptcantilina, Mtcalvarenga, SalopianTank01,
Serg0034, WikiImprovment78, Ingilizceturkceceviri, Loraof, Africanboss88, Bongan, AdonisEuropeo, Asilah1981, Zockland, Jotagueerrepe, Lukas Sauerzapf, Mevbt, Euro748, Luiz Gustavo Dsl, Man of l123, Melroross, Vitorlipediasmachado, KasparBot, Allisontraud,
Mauricio Sordille, Quackriot, FabricioYTR, Vicent.Dissident, IvanScrooge98, PRafael66, Hannahlueras, GreenC bot, Niseinet, Rariteh,
Mr KEBAB, Amanda And and Anonymous: 1422
7.18.2
77
Images
File:1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/1755_Lisbon_earthquake.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Earthquake Engineering Online Archive - Jan Kozak Collection: KZ128 Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
File:Antonio_Jose_de_Almeida_(official).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/39/Antonio_Jose_de_Almeida_
%28official%29.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Antonio_of_Portugal.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Antonio_of_Portugal.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:BRA_orthographic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/BRA_orthographic.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work with Natural Earth Data Original artist: Addicted04
File:Brazil-16-map.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Brazil-16-map.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: scan from
ISBN 7-5347-1397-8 Original artist:
File:CoimbraUniLibrary-CCSA.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/CoimbraUniLibrary-CCSA.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr [1] Original artist: tacoekkel [2]
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Desfile_de_tropas_28_de_Maio_1926.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Desfile_de_tropas_
28_de_Maio_1926.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan de imagem do Livro Portugal um sculo de imagens Editado pelo
Dirio de Notcias, S.A. em 1999) Original artist: Attributed to Joshua Benoliel
File:Detail_of_a_portrait_of_Fernando_Alvarez_de_Toledo_by_Antonio_Moro.jpeg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Detail_of_a_portrait_of_Fernando_Alvarez_de_Toledo_by_Antonio_Moro.jpeg License:
Public domain
Contributors: [1][2] and [3]. Original artist: Antonis Mor
File:Don_Pelayo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Don_Pelayo.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Falantes_no_mundo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Falantes_no_mundo.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Missionary
File:Flag_of_Angola.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Cape_Verde.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Flag_of_Cape_Verde.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_East_Timor.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Flag_of_East_Timor.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Galicia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Flag_of_Galicia.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Sodipodis Clipart Gallery Original artist: Pedro A. Gracia Fajardo
File:Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Macau.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Flag_of_Macau.svg License: Public domain
Original artist: PhiLiP
Contributors: GB 17654-1999
File:Flag_of_Malacca.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_Malacca.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: w:Flag of Malacca.svg Original artist: User Mysid on en.wikipedia
File:Flag_of_Mozambique.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Flag_of_Mozambique.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vtor Lus Rodrigues; Antnio Martins-Tuvlkin (2004; this specic vector set: see sources)
File:Flag_of_Sao_Tome_and_Principe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Flag_of_Sao_Tome_and_
Principe.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Spain.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Uruguay.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: design of the sun copied from URL [1], which was copied by Francisco Gregoric, 5 Jul 2004 from URL [2] Original artist:
User:Reisio (original author)
78
Descobrimentos_e_exploraes_portuguesesV2.png
*Descobrimentos_e_exploraes_portugueses.png:
Tokle
79
Original
artist:
Descobrimentos_e_exploraes_portuguesesV2.png:
*Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorations.png:
*Portuguese_Empire_map.jpg:
7.18.3
Content license