Connecting curriculum: Learning and cyberart as a pedagogical innovation to facilitate adult learning education (Canadian International Journal of Social Sciences and Education)

Gilberto  Lacerda Santos; Valentin Oros

Practices of pedagogical innovation in Adult and Professional Education are carried out in the PROEJA-Transiart project to investigate adult learning with media support. Adult learner students produce artistic digital media as a curriculum learning task. Two examples of the innovation process are discussed in the curriculum of history and physics. Seventy students were involved in the production of cyberart in support of curriculum learning and their cyberart were posted in the research site at wwww.proejatransiarte.ifg.edu.br and shared among all participants. The research methodology is the action research (Barbier, 1996), which facilitates change and innovation in social and educational settings.

Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Volume 10, January 2017 ISNN 2356-847X Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education CIJSSE With Support from Canadian Research Centre for Humanities and Science www.cijse.org socialscience@crchs.info 350 Joicey Boluvard M5M 2W1 Toronto, Canada Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 About The Journal The Canadian Research Centre for Humanities and Science encourages Undergraduate students and Post-Graduates Students of Colleges and Universities to submit their papers for publication in the Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education. In addition, The CRCHS will give letter of acceptance for all papers accepted for publication and a Certificate of publication. Frequency of Publication The Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education is published twice per year, in January and June. Chief-In-Editor Dr.Samah Khalil Associate Professor at Ontario College for Research & Development Prof. Dr Tijana Mandić Religious and Psychological Studies, FDU, Serbia Gloria Esteban de la Rosa, Professor at the University of Jaen, Spain Ahmed Ali (PhD) Associate Professor of Translation Dept. of Arabic and Translation Studies American University of Sharjah Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 International Editorial Committee Dr Nathalie Gosselin, Ph.D., Adjunct Professor, Department of psychology, University of Montreal Dr. Marlyn Morris Program Manager, CRCHS Dr. Syed Asad Abbas Rizvi Saudi Arabia Dr. Matthias Heinz Germany Dr. Wasantha Subasinghe India Dr. Mahmoodreza Hosseini Dr. Isabel Cuadrado-Gordillo Spain Inmaculada Fernández-Antelo Spain Dr.Adarsh Kohli India Dr Lung-Sheng Lee Taiwan Dr. Ahmed Alkhalifah Saudi Arabia Dr. Mohamed Alamro Saudi Arabia Dr.Sang-Heui Lee Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 China Dr. Nadir Ali Kolachi Dr.Chah Jane Mbolle Dr.Li, Yiping Dr.Kaushikkumar Chimanlal Raval Dr.Filiberto Toledano Dr.Jung Hyun RYU Dr.Flavio Marques Azevedo Dr.Esra Ceran Dr. Omar S. Al-Mushayt Dr. Sergi Kapanadze Dr. Vicky (Vayia) Karaiskou Dr. Dejan Marolov Dr. Mohamed S. Osman Dr. Francesca Spigarelli Dr. Dragica Vujadinovic Dr. Badar Alam Iqba Dr. Syed Asad Abbas Rizvi Dr.Adarsh Kohli Dr. Hong Thi Nguyen Dr. Andrea Smith-Hunter Dr. Hetti Appuhamillage Kumudu DR. Sumedha Sanjeewani Dr. Balraj Singh Brar Dr. Mahmoodreza Hosseini DR. ISABEL CUADRADO-GORDILLO Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Table of Content The effectiveness of a program based on imagery strategy in developing creative writing among secondary stage students……..……………………………………….………...…..….…8 The Regulation of Data Protection for Credit Bureaus in the Czech Republic………..…….….17 Empowering Young Entrepreneurs through Financial Literacy(A Case Study of Vocational School Students in Indonesia)…………………………..…………….……….....……27 Affective strategies and school engagement of abandoned students in learning process………………………………………………………………………………….……..……...41 The discursive Formations of Female Spirituality: Decentering Phallic Ideologies in Moroccan Orthodox Hagiography: Reflections on Jaafar Kettani’s Salwat al-anfas and Yusuf Ibn Yahya Tadili’s Tashawwuf ila rijal attasawwuf………………………………………………………….…………………………………55 THE STORIES IN THE BEHIND BATIK CLOTHS……………….……..………….…………61 THE STORY BEHIND THE FOOD ACCORDING JAVANESE TRADITION….……...……67 Flight Attendants’ Strike on Taiwan’s New Labor Law: A Review of the 2016 China Airline’s Strike………………………………………………………………………………...………..………72 Change Management in Engineering Educational Institutions A case study from India……...84 Study on Classroom Management and Teaching Efficiency for Filipino High School Teachers…………………..…………………………………………………………………………93 Connecting curriculum learning and cyberart as a pedagogical innovation to facilitate adult learning……………………………………………………………………………………..………109 INFLUENCE OF MARITAL CONFLICT ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF MARRIED STUDENTS IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN OSUN STATE……………….119 UTILIZATION AND CHALLENGES OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND ADMINISTRATIVE JOB PERFORMANCE IN ENUGU STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS………………………………………..……………………...………135 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Employee Turnover and Correlates as Influencers of Job Satisfaction among Hospitality Employees in Osun State, Nigeria……………………………………….………..……………..143 Syrrina Ahsan Ali Haque………………………………….…………………..…...……………154 APPLICATION OF QUALITY INDICATORS IN CRITICAL CARE UNITS OF A TERTIARY CARE HOSPITAL OF HYDERABAD – INDIA…………..……………………162 The Essence of African American Women Identity in Warriors Don’t Cry….…….…..……175 URBAN PROFILING - ASPECTS OF ADAPTION MANAGEMENT AND PROFILEORIENTED MARKETING FOR A HIGHLY SUSTAINABLE CITY DEVELOPMENT………………………………………………………………………….….182 INFLUENCE OF PRINCIPALS’ ETHICAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS ON TEACHERS’ LEVEL OF COMMITMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA……………………………………………………………………………….…..…….192 Interpretive Aspects of Human Figure Drawings of Abused Children…….……….…………202 Addressing academic writing needs of ESL (English as a Second Language) undergraduate students………………………………………………………………………...….………………219 MANIFESTATIONS OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC PARENTS AND COPING STRATEGIES OF THEIR CHILDREN……………………………....…..…..233 Secondary Mathematics Teachers’ Knowledge of Arithmetic Procedures on Fractions…...…250 CAPITAL BASE AND MICRO BUSINESS PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIA: A BOOTSTRAP REGRESSION APPROACH………………………………………………………………..……261 The Legal System of the Saudi Judiciary and the Possible Effects on Reinforcement and Enforcement of Commercial Arbitration…………………………………...……………...…….269 WOMEN and BRITISH LABOUR GOVERNMENTS from 1924 to 1997 Souad GUESSAR…………………………………………………………………..……..………289 Teaching Experiences of the Vocational Trainers in Chinese Cuisine Training for Immigrant Women in Taiwan……………………………………………………………..…………………..298 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The Inspiration of the Blues on African American Women in The Color Purple by Alice Walker…………………………………………………………………………………………….304 THE COUMMUNITY: CONCEPT, CALSSIFICATION AND IMPACT IN MANAGEMENT…………………………………………………………………..…………….310 The Power of Saying “No”………………………………………………………………………323 The Implications of Using a Blended Approach for Teaching Islamic Education Modules in Girls’ Schools in Saudi Arabia……………………………...………………………327 Parents' self-deception in Naguib Mahfouz's Palace Walk and Arthur Miller's All My Sons……………………………………………………………………………………..………….342 Decoding the politics of ‘Right to Education’ in India through the Prism of the Disabled…...355 Decoding the politics of ‘Right to Education’ in India through the Prism of the Disabled……370 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The effectiveness of a program based on imagery strategy in developing creative writing among secondary stage students Amal Abdullah Abdularahman Alkhudair Abstract This study aimed at investigating the effect of a program based on imagery strategy in developing creative writing skills among secondary stage students in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Thus, this study tried to answer the following question: To what extent is a program based on imagery strategy effective in developing creative writing skills among secondary stage students in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia? This question is divided into the following question: 1.What are the creative writing skills suitable to secondary stage students? 2. What are the kinds/ patterns of imagery that should be taught to secondary stage students? 3.To what extent is a program based on imagery strategy effective in developing creative writing skills among secondary stage students in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia? In the light of the this, this study aimed at developing both teaching and learning processes through: 1. Linking language to thinking through identifying the creative writing skills suitable to secondary stage students. 2. Training students to use imagination, which leads to having the ability to organize their mental processes and ordering them in a way that corrects one's way in life. 3. Determining to what extent a program based on imagery strategy is effective in developing creative writing skills among secondary stage students in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia The study Imagination is no longer an educational choice; it is rather an indispensible necessity. This is because "developing learners' ability to think leads to deeper understanding of the content they learn since the basis of learning is thinking" (Khedr and Alashkar, 2003:102). Consequently, teaching for the sack of thinking and creativity acquires an increasing importance as a need for the students' success and developing both school and society (Alsameer and Hawamda, 2007: 103). Developing thinking skills considering them one of the important aims of teaching is not an arguable issue. However, achieving this aim is lacking and the teaching behavior for its development is not enough (Karam, 1992: 15 and Newmann,1995,P:15).this lead to the discrepancy of the studies in identifying the reasons behind this. Some studies pinpoint the poor level of teacher's teaching competency (Karam, 1992:45 and Bakkar, 1425:55). Other studies attribute this to misuse of student- based teaching methods (Khedr and Alashkar, 2003: 103). Another group of studies highlight poor recognition of the relationship between language and thinking which led to the students' poor level in communication skills (Alkadi, 2007:7). The student needs manipulating language in its whole form (Mousa and Salama, 2004:88). Therefore many studies recommended that great attention be paid to language creative skills and setting Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 specific lists of these skills such as Alhawy (2007:192). "For the learner to be able to write clearly and efficiently, he has to think deeply and for his writing to be powerful and creative, he has to have creative thinking skills as well (Abdulazeem, 2009: 36). This is because creative writing is one of the complex intellectual processes. It is also a distinguished academic activity and a form of the growth of thinking ability and control of language skills at the word, structure, affect levels in a literary way that is distinguished by beauty of expression and preciseness of description and cleverness of imagination. Creative writers do not only have powerful recognition but also delicate sensitivity towards emotions and human feelings which they deal with in their writings. They are able to transmit them to their readers through creative use of the language. This is because they seek balancing their individual views of the world to the international views (Goh&Goh,1996,P156), be this in poetry or prose. Educational recently psychologists paid attention to experimenting methods of learning creative skills and training on them for the sake of developing performance. Therefore, cognitive researchers started to care for educational strategies which puts students in long term intellectual environments in order to raise the awareness of humans of their work. This necessitated what is called active mind habits (Alsabbagh, Benten and Algeid, 2006: 704; Costa & Kallick, 2000, B1, 21-39; Costa & Kallick, 2009, 8-13) In spite of a person's possession of thinking skills, he has to make use of the various opportunities to apply them from time to time. He should also have the true desire to use the different strategies to execute these skills according to the conditions and situations, and to evaluate their effectiveness. The process of forming mind habits does not happen just by having these basic skills and abilities which are needed for their execution but it happens in the existence of the desire and disposition to apply them in the suitable situations and times (Tishman,2000,PP41-50) Wineburg (2003) emphasizes the importance of focusing on learning outcomes and the educational and converting them to a repeated behavior and a stable method in the learner's life, used as a guide to all his work since those mind habits affect, considering them individual obligations, people's behaviors in society. They represent a teaching theory of what and how people should learns. It depends, as other methods, on a basis of beliefs, values and old tools for discovering these bases and practicing critical examination of views and beliefs Costa & Kallick, 2000\2003, B1, P42). Mind habits are a group of skills, attitudes and values which enable a person to build performance preferences, or the intelligent behaviors based on stimuli and cues he meets, leading him to select a mental process or performing a behavior from a group of available alternatives to face a problem or an issue, or behaving effectively and continuing in this way (Noufal, 2008: 68). The habit of imagination gives the topic we study constructive information that is similar to that we get from direct concrete experience since the imagined image affects our judgments and our cognitive thinking styles (Thomas,1997) and the technical manual skills and concepts. Imaginations used in learning helps in accelerating mastery and deepens emotional development and awareness of internal life where learners' attitudes and dispositions grow (Nagy, 2007: 5). Different studies proved the positive effect of using imagination on different variables such as intelligence and creativity such as Alsafy (2005), Khalifa (1994), Leboutillier & Marks (2003), and Ceci & Loftus (1994). Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 In spite of the effectiveness of using imagination in teaching, little attention is paid to it in education in general and the Arabic language in particular. Alrabey (2009) revealed that little explicit attention is paid to mind habits including imagination in reading curricula. Some few phrases were available in the textbook and needs a great effort from the teacher toraise students' awareness of them; the book does not try to explain these habits significantly either. Since language is the basis, a person may have an internal language and an expressive language to be able to develop imagination (Costa and Kalike cited in Abdelghany, 2003:15). Words and meanings are symbols of thinking considering it a mental process. They are tools of human thinking whose acquisition needs more mental recognition, comparison, abstraction and generalization. Thinking is a basic condition for language development and vice versa. Through the ideal relationship between them, creativity is achieved among learners (Tabaa, 2008:485486) at the different stages, in general, and at the secondary stage, in particular. Secondary stage students are characterized by their ability to learn and acquire skills and knowledge, completeness of the higher order functions and distinctiveness of individual differences, level and scope of attention among them, and their need for learning that is based o inference and deduction increases (Moustafa, 2000:23).They also have inherent capabilities and creative mental abilities that need to be used and invested. Writing is very important to those students because, in writing, the student moves from abstraction to concreteness. Consequently, the desire for expressing his different emotions and feelings about the world he lives in increases. The student at the secondary stage longs for participating in current events and needs writing in different areas. Therefore, kinds of expression at this stage vary according to the these areas in order to be once a function and creative another (Koura, 1972:190). Bintz and Henning-Shanon (2005, 35-38) revealed that secondary stage students are able to write poems even if they are poorly motivated in this area. They do this by mixing training on deep thinking and the perfect art work and focusing on integrating them, linking this to analysis of good texts chosen by the students according to their experiences, in addition to paying attention to developing the listening skill during teaching. Therefore, developing thinking and creative skills and addition to using effective teaching methods with the help of content and instructional aids to achieve the objectives are a must (Mohammad, 2007:52-53). Some studies recommended designing educational and training programs for developing creative thinking skills, in general, and creative writing skills in particular such as Alkhasawna (2004:107), Alsous (2003:113) and Allouzy (2005:201). In spite of this, some studies revealed the poor level of developing creative skills during teaching in the areas of creative writing and poetry such as Bintz & Henning-Shanon (2005). Atteya and Hafez (2006:166) pinpointed that "secondary stage students suffer from their poor level in creative writing skills. This level appears in their lacking the ability to make use of the introduction, pinpointing the main ideas, joining themain ideas together in a logical sequence that leads to a complete vision of the written text". This also included teachers. Alshehry (1427:111) revealed the poor level of the Arabic language teachers in language fluency during explaining the literary texts to secondary stage students. The percentage of those who got excellent did not exceed 7.1% of the study participants. Bazaraa (1429:164-166) showed the low level of the language teachers in expressive and intellectual fluency. 60% of them were poor. This is in addition to paying little attention to students, encouraging them and reminding them of their strengths, schools' lack of the essential characteristics that make them supportive environments for developing creative skills among students. Alqarny (2008:316) revealed the low level of the values of developing thinking, as one of the educational cultural values, which reached together with the other cultural Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 values 10.24% of the total educational values included in the poetry texts assigned in the literature taught to secondary the stage in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Alaweidy (2006:148-149) showed that curricula of teaching writing at the general educational stages in KSA are concerned with training on creative writing skills in the area of prose and are not directed to training students on creative writing in the area of poetry in spite of the fact that literature in teaching the Arabic language shows that students study creative writing in poetry and prose in Writing Course at the secondary stage. The study also revealed some challenges, from the supervisors' point of view. These included the absence of programs shown to teachers in this area and the difficulty of teaching poetry. Based on this, and believing in the importance of developing the ability of imagination and its effect on the learners' ability to self-learn, think in problem solving, generate ideas and ask questions related to areas in his life (Alqadi, 2007:5). From the researcher's experience in training student- teachers, the researcher observed their poor level of developing imagination among their students, neglecting developing the listening skill, listening comprehension in addition to neglecting asking students which helps in bridging the gab between what they know and what they do not know. The researcher also observed the student-teachers' poor level in developing creative writing skills among their students. To make sure of the results of the studies, the researcher conducted a pilot study that included content analysis of 20 models of test questions in language courses for third year secondary stage students. The pilot study revealed that they are not comprehensive concerning creative writing skill such as fluency, flexibility, sensitivity to problems in meanings, spontaneous and adaptive flexibility in style. The researcher also interviewed Arabic language teachers and supervisors to know the reasons for neglecting students' training on creative writing skills. The interviews revealed that the reasons are the difficulty in learning its skills, and that the objectives of teaching writing do not include them and limit them to creative writing in prose only. In addition, Arabic language teachers are not trained on teaching creative writing at the pre- or in-service program, students' level in creative writing is poor, and students' numbers are big, leading to inability to give them equal opportunities in developing these skills. Consequently, there is a need to suggest a program based on imagination for developing creative writing skills among secondary stage students. This is an attempt to link imagination to creative writing skills due to the students and teachers' need for this program which was not designed in its light. There is no program for linguistic creativity, to the best of the researcher's knowledge. In spite of the importance of these programs and their effectiveness (Tishman, 2000 and Gutman, 2002), they did not deal with creative writing skills. This study will design a program and identify its effectiveness in developing creative writing skills based on results of the previous studies and making use of their recommendations. This will contribute to developing language teaching . Problem of the study is identified in investigating the effectiveness of a program based on an imagery strategy in developing creative writing skills among secondary stage students in KSA. This study sought to answer the following main question: "To what extent is a program based on imagery strategy effective in developing creative writing skills among secondary stage students in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia?" This question is divided into the following question: 1. What are the creative writing skills suitable to secondary stage students? 2. What are the kinds/ patterns of imagery that should be taught to secondary stage students? Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 3. To what extent is a program based on imagery strategy effective in developing creative writing skills among secondary stage students in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia? In the light of the this, this study aimed at developing both teaching and learning processes through: 1Linking language to thinking through identifying the creative writing skills suitable to secondary stage students. 2Training students to use imagination, which leads to having the ability to organize their mental processes and ordering them in a way that corrects one's way in life. 3Determining to what extent a program based on imagery strategy is effective in developing creative writing skills among secondary stage students in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. To answer these questions and achieve the objectives of the study, the following procedures were followed: 1. Conducting a pilot study that included content analysis of 20 Arabic language tests for third year secondary stage students. Results showed that they do not include what develops each of creative writing skills, such as fluency, title, intellectual flexibility, flexibility and originality, elaboration, sensitivity to problems in meanings, spontaneous and adaptive flexibility in style, adaptive flexibility in using imagination and sensitivity to problems in technical validity. 2. The researcher interviewed a sample of Arabic language teachers and supervisors to know the reasons behind neglecting training students on creative writing skills. The interviews revealed that the reasons are the difficulty in learning its skills, and that the objectives of teaching writing do not include them and limit them to creative writing in prose only. In addition, Arabic language teachers are not trained on teaching creative writing at the pre- or in-service program, students' level in creative writing is poor, and students' numbers are big, leading to inability to give them equal opportunities in developing these skills. 3. Identifying creative writing skills through identifying the creative thinking skills suitable for creative writing, and identifying the micro skills for each macro skill . 4. Identifying the patterns of imagination, and the basic and compound thinking skills, and characteristics of the secondary stage students with regard to imagination . - Designing a program based on imagination strategy that aims at developing creative writing skills as follows: selecting the design model and identifying the direction of the program in teaching imagination for developing creative writing skills, identifying the principles of designing the program and its objectives and students' characteristics. Then, the program content is prepared and teaching strategies selected; learning and teaching activities and aids ar :prepared. - Pre-tests were administered to the participants, the program was taught with formative tests, and finally, the post-tests were administered. - A teacher's guide was prepared for anyone who will use the program. A student' guide was also prepared along with a guide of imagination – based expectancies. Tools of the study included Scale of Creative Writing Skills (SCWS), a Rubric for Scoring Creative Writing Skills (RSSCWS) and a Test of Understanding Creative Writing Skills (TACWS). Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Data was statistically treated using Pearson Correlation for calculating internal consistency, Alph Krounbakh Coefficient was used for calculating reliability, t-test was used to calculate the difference between the mean scores of the control and experimental groups and Eta Squared ɱ2 was used to estimate effect size. The study reached many findings among them are: 1. There was a statistically significant difference at 0.05 between the mean scores of the experimental and control groups post tests in the SCWS and the TACWR in favor of the experimental group. 2. The percentage of the interpreted variance caused by the experimental treatment (represented in training on the program for developing creative writing skills) is estimated as 68%. This is considered a high effect of the independent variable according to the results of administration of the SCW. The percentage of the interpreted variance caused by the experimental treatment (represented in training on the program for developing creative writing skills) is estimated as 98%. This is considered a high effect of the independent variable according to results of the TCCWS. This is because in interpretation that is more than 15% is considered high. This indicates that the program is highly effective in developing creative writing skills among the participants. In the light of the results, the researcher recommends the following: 1. Making use of the list of creative writing skills in designing and evaluating the Writing and "Literature and Texts" curricula. 2. The necessity of including courses for training on practicing mind habits among the different educational stages and integrating them with the other subjects specially Arabic. 3. Relating each mind habit to the educational stage suitable for its training; thus distributing training on mind habits to the different stages. 4. The necessity for training Arabic language teachers on teaching creative writing through practicing imagination which leads to engaging students while teaching and makes her responsible for her learning. 5. Making use of the SCWS for secondary stage students when evaluating creative writing skills and in the studies which deals with creative writing skills. References - - - Abdelazeem, R. A. (2009). The effectiveness of a program based on divergent thinking in developing creative writing skills and some mind habits among preparatory stage students. Journal of Reading and Cognition, 94, 33-112. Alewidy, W. (2006). A suggested program based on creative thinking skills in poetry at the secondary stage in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Studies in Curicula and Methods of Teaching,119, 144-174. Alhawey, M. (2007).the effect of a program in creative reading on developing some writing skills among secondary stage students at the Yemen Republic. 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Leboutillier.N & Marks,D.(2003).Mental imagery &Creativity A meta–analytic review study .British Journal of psychology ,94(1),29-45. Mcvey, D. (2008). Why All Writing is Creative Writing, Innovations in Education and Teaching International, vol. 45, No. 03 , Aug , PP (289- 294 ). Mcfarland, R. (1963). An Apologia for Creative writing: Colleges English Journal V82N2. Mohammad,S. (2007). The effect of using guided inquiry in teaching Sociology on achievement of creative abilities among general secondary stage students, Journal of the Educational Association of Social studies, 12, 51-85. Mousa, M. (2002). The effect of a suggested program in developing some story creative writing skills and story awareness among fifth grade primary pupils. Studies in Curricula and Methods of Teaching, 77, 213-259. - Moustafa, F. (2000). Thinking skills at the general education stages. Cairo, the Arab Thinking House. - Nagy, S. (2007). The effect of teaching using imagination strategy on achievement of high basic stage students and attitude towards Chemistry in the light of the two hemispheres, Ph.D., Dept. of Curricula and Methods of Teaching, College of Graduate Educational Studies, Arab Amman University for Graduate Studies, Amma - Newmann, Fred M & et al .(1995). Authentic Pedagogy, (ERIC) Document Reproduction Service No .ED 390906) - Noufal, M,(2008). Practical applications in developing thinking using habits of mind. Almaseera publishers: Oman. - Tabbaa, E. (2008). The argumentative relationship between prosodic verbal language and creative thinking. Eighth Scientific Symposium of the Arab Union of the Organizations working in Caring for the Deaf "Developing Education and Rehabilitation of the Deaf and the Hearing Impaired", 24/4/1429; 28-30 April, 2008,the Scientific Committee for he Deaf, Reyadh. - Thomas,N .(1997). Imagery &the Coherence of imagination critique of white .journal of philosophical research, (22),95-127. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Tishman, S. (2000).Why Teach Habits of Mind? In Costa, A.and Kallick, B, Discovering and Exploring Habits of Mind. Alexandria VA: Association for Supervision and curriculum Development. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The Regulation of Data Protection for Credit Bureaus in the Czech Republic Jiří Rajl, University of Economics, Prague, The Czech Republic Abstract The purpose of this paper is to identify the influence of EU legislation on Czech law in relation to data processing for credit bureaus. This paper reviews how financial institutions use credit bureaus as instruments for evaluating creditworthiness based on accessible data. It concludes with a discussion of the question of how the local data protection authority exercises its discretion in relation to the broad EU law. Key words: Credit Bureau, Data Protection, Financial Market Regulation, EU Legislation. JEL classification: G18, K36. 1 Introduction Since the Czech Republic joined the European Union, local legislation has been significantly affected by regulations set by European bodies. Because credit registers process information about the clients of banks and financial institutions, that data processing is regulated not only from the point of view of personal data protection, but also to protect the consumer on the financial markets, who is regarded in legislation as the weaker counterparty. The consumer, to a certain extent, cannot have at his disposal the extent of information available to the financial institutions, and the more complex the products used by the consumer are, the more the resulting information asymmetry is manifested on the credit market. Consumer protection is a pan-European issue, which is enshrined in European legislation within the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union1, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union2, and various European Union directives, above all Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on consumer rights, amending Council Directive 93/13/EEC and Directive 1999/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directive 85/577/EEC and Directive 97/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council3. The aim of credit market regulation is to protect the consumer, to limit his level of overindebtedness by checking his creditworthiness, and to ensure that the obligation to inform the clients is fulfilled sufficiently to allow them to evaluate all aspect of the product they are using, or any product they plan to use. The obligation to check the consumer´s ability to pay off a loan is a principle which, in practice, financial institutions uphold by using credit registers and sharing information about their clients. Obtaining detailed information about the paying off of existing obligations and the overall 1 Source: EUR-Lex [on-line], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1478292423256&uri=CELEX:12012E/TXT. 2 Source: EUR-Lex [on-line], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1478292535755&uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT. 3 Source: EUR-Lex [on-line], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1478260092154&uri=CELEX:32011L0083. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 behaviour of clients regarding credit products is the basis for quality evaluation of a client´s future behaviour. Financial institutions do not, therefore, have to rely only on information supplied by the client himself, but are able to verify that information. The existence of credit registers on any given market does not, however, represent a solution which prevents the overindebtedness of clients in all cases. For example, in the Czech Republic all banks and financial institutions are able to participate in credit registers or use available data, but it is not obligatory. The standard of legislation varies from country to country, and there are different approaches in different countries. Credit registers may be private or operated by the central bank. They may be set up on the basis of legislation, or they may be without legislative support. In the Czech Republic there is a credit register operated by the Czech National Bank 4 and three other significant registers5,6,7. Until this year, the legislative framework was only general, but then, due mainly to the transposition of European law into Czech law, there were several changes which have a significant impact on credit registers, either directly or indirectly. 2 The impact of changes in legislation In western countries, credit registers have a long tradition. Having their own financial history verified is a standard practice for the clients of banks and financial institutions in developed economies. Credit registers were established in the Czech Republic more than 15 years ago, but they are still generally viewed by consumers as the processors of negative information. Consumers fail to recognise sufficiently the benefits they receive from the processing of positive information, in particular the speeding up of the credit process as well as other advantages with institutions that use credit registers. In this respect, legislation focuses mainly on strengthening the protection of the consumer from over-indebtedness and strives to strengthening the status of credit registers as instruments for effectively checking the creditworthiness of debtors. To what extent, however, are financial institutions able to check creditworthiness using credit registers? As recently as a year ago, the processing of the personal data in registers was regulated only by law no. 101/2000 Coll. on the protection of personal data, which requires the consent of the subject whose data is to be processed by a register. An exception to this law is found in law no. 21/1992 Coll., on banks (§ 38a), which permits banks to process personal data and to share it with other banks even without the clients´ consent. In 2001, on the basis of this exception, certain banks set up the Client Information Bank Register, which gives them access to their clients´ credit reports, allowing them to check their creditworthiness, trustworthiness and payment morale. Three years later, based on the same model, the Non-bank Client Information Register was set up, initially mainly for bank subsidiaries which did not have a banking licence, and whose product focus was primarily on financial leasing. The processing of information in this register is not subject to the exception granted by the law on banks and is, therefore, regulated by the general legal regulation, that is, it requires the client´s consent. 4 Source: Czech National Bank, Central Credit Register, http://www.cnb.cz/en/supervision_financial_market/central_credit_register/index.html. 5 Source: CBCB – Czech Banking Credit Bureau, a.s., Bank Credit Information Register, http://www.cbcb.cz. 6 Source: CNCB – Czech Non-Banking Credit Bureau, z.s.p.o., Non-Banking Credit Information Register, http://www.cncb.cz. 7 Source: SOLUS, z.s.p.o., http://www.solus.cz. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The verification of creditworthiness using a register which requires the consent of the subject of the data is, to a certain extent, a limited solution, which was a reason for the changes in legislation, primarily the amendment of law no. 634/1992 Coll. on consumer protection by law no. 378/2015 Coll., which came into effect on 1 February 2016. The law on consumer protection now includes an amendment regulating credit registers (so-called information databases on the creditworthiness and trustworthiness of consumers according to § 20z and 20za) and the processing of, primarily, negative data by those registers. This amendment to the law defines the processing primarily of negative data in the registers which operate according to that law. It is, however, still necessary to obtain the clients´consent to the processing of positive personal data too8, and for comprehensive credit registers which include both positive and negative data, this law represents only a partial solution. In addition, the law sets detailed regulations for the functioning of credit registers and even introduces restrictions which have a negative impact on existing registers, eg. a change in the length of time taken by the processing of personal data. In this case, the regulation of credit registers was based on the need of the vendors to share information on the consumers´ long-term debts. The definition focuses therefore more on sectors other than the financial or credit market, since it is more general and provides room for the creation of a so-called multi-sector register of payment information. When the amendment to the law on consumer protection was being debated, many argued that information about the register should not be a subject of the amendment, since, basically, it was not about consumer protection, but rather about the protection of vendors. There is some truth to that argument. However, it tendentiously points to an ideal state of affairs in which consumers behave responsibly, which is not always the case. The consumer protection provided by a register is, therefore, de facto indirect protection from one´s own irresponsible behaviour and moral hazard. The law defines the notification obligations of the vendor, which means that the consumer must be informed sufficiently and in advance of the entry of any record of his debt in the register. A vendor who shares information about a consumer within the framework of the register, which processes data according to the law, is obliged to inform the consumer in advance about the sharing of the information. If, in addition, the vendor shares information about the debt payments with which the consumer is in arrears, he is firstly obliged to call on the consumer to pay off the debt and only afterwards to send the information to the register. Obtaining information from the register is thereafter always connected with a specific commercial case and requires the consumer´s consent to the retrieval of positive information from the register. The consumer may, therefore, prevent the vendor from obtaining and reporting positive information, if he does not give him permission. The definition of a register according to the law – as has already been stated – applies more to the operation of negative registers processing data about overdue receivables from consumers. In addition to the amendment to the law on consumer protection, a further significant change was the transposition into Czech law of Directive 2014/17/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 February 2014 on credit agreements for consumers relating to residential immovable property and amending Directives 2008/48/EC and 2013/36/EU and Regulation (EU) No 1093/20109. The directive was transposed into Czech law and new Consumer Credit Act, 8 Or notification, see below. Source: EUR-Lex [on-line], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1478260981072&uri=CELEX%3A32014L0017. 9 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 which comes into effect on 1 December 2016 as law no. 257/2016 Coll., took over the transposition adjustments of Directive 2008/48/EC and repealing Directive 87/102/EES, which was contained in derogated Act no. 145/2010 Coll., on consumer credit. The banking market is much more strongly regulated than the non-banking market. From the point of view of the protection of the financial market and the economy, this stronger regulation of the banking market is logical. Banks receive deposits from households and, should the banking houses get into trouble, there is a much greater impact on the market than when there are problems with non-banking financial institutions. The new law on consumer credit nevertheless restricts regulatory differences and, due also to that law, the regulation of the non-banking market is approaching the level of bank regulation, at least within the framework of the credit market. The new law, for example, strengthens the out-of-court settlement of disputes and adjusts the supervision of the non-banking market. In connection with the out-of-court settlement of disputes and proceedings by the Financial Arbiter, in addition to the directives mentioned above, the law now also includes Directive 2013/11/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2013 on alternative dispute resolution for consumer disputes and amending Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 and Directive 2009/22/EC (Directive on consumer ADR)10. The new law on consumer credit offers the possibility of processing personal data in the credit registers without the clients´ consent (§ 88) in the same spirit as in the law on banks. Financial institutions thus also have at their disposal an exception from the law on the protection of personal data analogous to that which the banks have. From the point of view of the law, they can, therefore, verify the creditworthiness of debtors in the same way and to the same extent that the banks can. By using the data on the consumer credit of debtors they are fulfilling the obligations imposed on them by that law. The law, therefore, sets out the obligations, but at the same time provides the tool which enables them to fulfil those specified obligations. As has already been said, the law adjusts the supervision of the non-banking sector by transferring it from the Czech Trade Inspection Authority to the Czech National Bank. The central bank (Czech National Bank) has also recently acquired the duty of supervising the providers and mediators of non-banking credit, and also licenses them to carry out that activity. Within the licensing process, the central bank may also check the credit-granting process and evaluate the level and adequacy of the verification of clients´ creditworthiness using the accessible credit registers. Banks and financial institutions use credit registers to a large extent. However, the duties newly set out in the law on consumer credit force credit providers to carry out a much deeper analysis of each debtor, the basis of which will be the credit report. Financial institutions did not use to require one for every client, but now it is virtually impossible to proceed without one. This is mainly because the law gives a debtor the possibility to contest a credit agreement on the basis that the creditor has wrongly evaluated the debtor´s ability to pay off the loan in question and should have foreseen that by granting the credit he would impose an excessive burden of debt on him. In such a situation, there is a danger that the credit agreement will be invalid, and the debtor will be exempted from payment of interest and fees and will be obliged to pay back only the principal sum, and only when he has the financial resources to do so. 10 Source: EUR-Lex [online], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1478263044864&uri=CELEX:32013L0011. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Fig. 1: On-line Credit Report requests in mil. 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Bank Non-bank Source: Banking Credit Information Register and Non-Banking Credit Information Register in mil. Fig. 2: Off-line Credit Report requests 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 - Bank Non-bank Source: Banking Credit Information Register and Non-Banking Credit Information Register High standards of credit granting should ensure, not only in the interest of the whole of society, that credit products should be granted only to those consumers who can show that they have sufficiently good prospects of paying off their debt in future. For this reason too, it is important that there should be comprehensive credit registers to enable the achievement of that aim. Only complete information on requests for credit products and the paying-off of already approved Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 credit can provide strong enough support for predictive scoring models to evaluate debtors´ payment morale and to calculate the level of credit which will not lead to over-indebtedness. If the credit registers which include comprehensive information about debtors did not contribute to the evaluation of the creditworthiness and trustworthiness of the clients of banks and financial institutions, the information burden would be transferred straight to the clients, and the proportion of endangered and unpaid credit would increase. An increase in the administrative burden would then have an impact not only on the cost of credit, but also on the quality and speed of its granting. The use of external credit registers is a standard element of the financial systems of most countries. According to research carried out by the ACCIS 11, which unites 44 Credit Reference Agencies (CRAs) across 28 European countries and 6 associate members from other continents, in 201212 the sharing of credit data in credit registers as a legal obligation was carried out in 29% of cases, while in 2015 the figure had already risen to 41% of cases. Credit registers raise the level of development of a financial market, and legislation should support their operations. A non-uniform legal set-up, which presents several different solutions or several possible interpretations, can lead to divergent approaches to legal obligations. While just one year ago there was only one law, augmented by another law, providing an exception, there is now a situation where the existing registers may process clients´ data on the basis of varying regulations. The banking register uses the exception according to the law on banks. The non-banking register may use the analogous exception according to the law on consumer credit, while at the same time a new register may be set up, which will process personal data according to the definition in the law on consumer protection. This model may be advantageous for the registers and offer various benefits. On the other hand, it opens up a broad discussion of specific impacts and the interpretation of unclear provisions, which in practice can cause complications. Examples of this are the above mentioned notification obligation and the obtaining of consent to the processing of personal data. Financial institutions which participate in more than one register may, paradoxically, have to face a complicated situation; How should they explain to the client the way in which his data are handled? Is it necessary to obtain his consent, or merely to notify him? The whole body of information may be confusing for the client, yet it can hardly be simplified. If, for example, there is a legal exception, the registers should proceed in accordance with it, which, to some extent, takes away the credit registers´ ability to decide which law to follow. On the subject of obtaining consent, as early as 2014 the Office for Personal Data Protection expressed its position on the excessive requesting of consent to the processing of personal data and the resulting failure to fulfil the notification obligation13. The Office stated – for different case – that there may be the “improper informing of a subject of the data about the character of the processing of his data, meaning that the administrator has failed to fulfil its legally required notification obligation”. In 11 Source: ACCIS (2015): ACCIS 2015 Survey of Members. An analysis of Credit Reporting in Europe. [online], 2015, http://www.accis.eu/fileadmin/filestore/position_papers/REPORT_ACCIS_2015_SURVEY_OF_MEMBERS_FIN AL_30112015_compressed.pdf. 12 Source: ACCIS (2013): ACCIS 2012 Survey of Members. An Analysis of Credit Bureaus in Europe. [online], 2013, http://www.accis.eu/fileadmin/filestore/newsflash/50923786_2_UKMATTERS_accis_2012_survey_of_members_.p df. 13 Source: The Office for Personal Data Protection (2014): Stanovisko č. 3/2014. [online], 2014, https://www.uoou.cz/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=200144&id=11916&n=stanovisko%2Dc%2D3%2D2014. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 some cases, the processor of the data requests consent, even though the gathering of the data, according to special laws, does not require consent, or “the consent of the affected person is not indispensable, as personal data can usually be processed for another legal reason, for example if the administrator is legally obliged to process the personal data, or the processing is indispensable for the conclusion or implementation of an agreement, or to protect the rights of the administrator”. The Office views the obtaining of consent as excessive and confusing. The administrator processes data according to the law without consent, and, by requesting consent, he informs the client that the client´s personal data are processed on the basis of his will, and the provision of data is, therefore, voluntary. “From the point of view of the responsible person, the administrator, the fulfilment of the notification obligation regarding the gathering of personal data is false and therefore insufficient. In other words, there is a breach of the obligation set out in § 11 paragraph 2 law no. 101/2000 Coll. This breach of the law may be resolved by the office either by a measure rectifying the situation, or by imposing a fine on the relevant administrator.” 3 Future legislative developments The existing changes to legislation are not, however the last amendment which will have an impact on the processing of data in registers. The regulation of personal data protection in Europe will be significantly affected by the new Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation)14, which, although it is not specifically directed at the field of personal data processing within the framework of the credit market and is interpreted generally for these purposes, nevertheless offers room for the discretional power of the local office. When it comes into effect in 2018, the existing regulations will be changed, and the approach of data administrators will be re-evaluated. Regulation, to a certain extent, can conflict with the legitimate interest of the creditor, but, on the other hand, it does not impose the obligation to obtain consent. That is also a reason when it depends on a specific interpretation of a regulator based on the other laws. The important thing is that the regulations should be set unambiguously, and that their precise definition should correspond to practice while, at the same time, respecting the other obligations which loan providers have in connection with other legal regulations. A local interpretation of European legislation may lead to a more appropriate approach to the situation in individual countries. On the other hand, however, European legislation has a tendency to harmonise regulations. Even though Europe does not yet have a uniform solution for sharing information between creditors, and each country, not only from a legislative point of view, approaches the issue of credit registers in its own way, the Analytical Credit Datasets (AnaCredit)15 has been launched. This project represents the start of new approach towards data sharing across the various countries. The European Central Bank, from its position of operator of this database, will gain access to detailed data on individual bank loans in the Eurozone in order to make the management of monetary policy and macroprudential supervision more effective. In the first phase, however, it will deal only with loans above 25,000 EUR granted by banks to firms. If the register is expanded to include data about natural persons in future, it will involve 14 Source: EUR-Lex [online], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1478270018090&uri=CELEX:32016R0679. 15 Source: European Central Bank [online], https://www.ecb.europa.eu/explainers/tell-memore/html/anacredit.en.html. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 only anonymised information for the purposes of statistical analyses, so there will be no mechanism to replace traditional credit registers. AnaCredit will not therefore provide a unified approach for traditional credit registers, and the further development of credit registers in Europe will probably take rather the form of mutual co-operation and the cross-border transfer of data. 4 Conclusion Credit registers constitute an important element not only at the start of the credit process, but also during its course, when they provide banks and financial institutions with sufficient information for the correct evaluation of clients´ creditworthiness. The development of the financial market requires a higher level of analytical approach to the available information. Rapid technological progress contributes to this. The legislative framework should not lag behind this progress, and, as rule, consumer protection depends on several aspects. When dealing with this issue, the legal system in the Czech Republic has hitherto treated debtors in a general fashion and, at certain times, has not reflected the need for comprehensive support for the effective processing of personal data within the framework of the credit registers. The amendment of the relevant legal regulations indeed provides stronger legal protection, not only for consumers, but also for creditors. The aim of the legal amendments is an overall improvement of the non-bank credit market, the elimination of negative impacts, which were caused above all by dishonest credit providers, the prevention of the intentional overburdening of clients with debt, and the enabling of the sufficient sharing of information on debtors. Legislation cannot take into account only consumers. It is also necessary to ensure that rights are enforceable when credit fraud occurs, while also ensuring that credit remains accessible. European law will have an even greater impact on local legislation in 2018 due to the panEuropean harmonisation of personal data protection. This will raise questions for credit registers regarding the process approach to the processing of data on debtors. The interpretation of the various principles of the new concept of personal data protection will be an important aspect for any changes made to data gathering and their scope. The proper functioning of the European Union´s internal market presupposes the removal of barriers, which may also be regarded as one of the basic principles for the processing of debtors´ personal data, so that financial institutions have at their disposal a sufficiently strong statistical information base, not only within individual countries, but also on a cross-border basis. Acknowledgement This paper has been prepared with the financial support of the University of Economics, Prague (IG102045), which the author gratefully acknowledges. References ACCIS (2015): ACCIS 2015 Survey of Members. An analysis of Credit Reporting in Europe. [online], http://www.accis.eu/fileadmin/filestore/position_papers/REPORT_ACCIS_2015_ SURVEY_OF_MEMBERS_FINAL_30112015_compressed.pdf. ACCIS (2013): ACCIS 2012 Survey of Members. An Analysis of Credit Bureaus in Europe. [online], http://www.accis.eu/fileadmin/filestore/newsflash/50923786_2_UKMATTERS_ accis_2012_survey_of_members_.pdf. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 CBCB – Czech Banking Credit Bureau, a.s. (2016): Bank Credit Information Register. [on-line], http://www.cbcb.cz. CNCB – Czech Non-Banking Credit Bureau, z.s.p.o. (2016): Non-Banking Credit Information Register. [on-line], http://www.cncb.cz. Czech National Bank (2016): Central Credit Register. [on-line], http://www.cnb.cz/en/ supervision_financial_market/central_credit_register/index.html. European Central Bank (2016): What is AnaCredit? [online], https://www.ecb.europa.eu/ explainers/tell-me-more/html/anacredit.en.html. EUR-Lex (2016): Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. [on-line], http://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1478292535755&uri=CELEX:12012P/ TXT. EUR-Lex (2016): Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. [on-line], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1478292423256&uri= CELEX:12012E/TXT. EUR-Lex (2016): Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on consumer rights, amending Council Directive 93/13/EEC and Directive 1999/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directive 85/577/EEC and Directive 97/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. [on-line], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1478260092154&uri=CELEX: 32011L0083. EUR-Lex (2016): Directive 2013/11/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2013 on alternative dispute resolution for consumer disputes and amending Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 and Directive 2009/22/EC (Directive on consumer ADR). [online], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1478263044864&uri=CELEX: 32013L0011. EUR-Lex (2016): Directive 2014/17/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 February 2014 on credit agreements for consumers relating to residential immovable property and amending Directives 2008/48/EC and 2013/36/EU and Regulation (EU) No 1093/2010. [online], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1478260981072& uri=CELEX%3A32014L0017. EUR-Lex (2016): Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation). [online], http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1478270018090&uri=CELEX:32016R0679. Experian (2012): What is a Credit Bureau – or rather, what should it be? [online], 2012, http://www.experian.co.uk/assets/responsibilities/brochures/What_Is_A_Credit_Bureau.pdf. SOLUS, z.s.p.o. (2016). [on-line], http://www.solus.cz. The Office for Personal Data Protection (2014): Stanovisko č. 3/2014. [online], 2014, https://www.uoou.cz/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=200144&id=11916&n=stanovisko%2Dc% 2D3%2D2014. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 World Bank, IFC (2012): Credit Reporting Knowledge Guide. [online], 2012, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/873561468320947849/pdf/941600WP0Box380IC00 credit0reporting.pdf. Empowering Young Entrepreneurs through Financial Literacy (A Case Study of Vocational School Students in Indonesia) Kardoyo, Widiyanto, Khasan Setiaji Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Faculty of Economy, Universitas Negeri Semarang Indonesia Abstract – Indonesia has young population to drive its economic development. One of them is vocational students who have the final objective to work in many broad different areas. The number of young unemployed people in Indonesia depicts that we need to empower young entrepreneurs. This article focuses on the importance of financial education for vocational students in Indonesia in terms of the framework of national financial education and the integration of financial education practices in vocational education. One possible great impact of financial education implemented in schools definitely improves the confidence of vocational students for any job opportunities after they finish their study. The fact shows that there are only a few numbers of graduates willing to becoming entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurship subjects must be much more directly intended for the growing spirit of entrepreneurship, production and marketing. However, the financial management is not yet considered as the subject concerned. The research site is a region of vocational public school of Semarang City, Central Java, Indonesia majoring in business and management: (1) Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City and; (2) Vocational Public School 9 Semarang City. In conducting the research, the researcher uses mixing methods; qualitative and quantitative methods. As a result, there is no national scheme of financial education for vocational schools and financial understanding gained does not support their success in entrepreneurship. It shows that people’s understanding about financial management in Indonesian is generally low. Concerning the importance of financial education, school and government need to encourage the students to improve their understanding in financial education. Keywords—empower, financial, vocational students, entrepreneurship Introduction Indonesian national education considers character development as one of the most prioritized program. Therefore, it is important that students have to have strong character. One of the goals of vocational school is that it prepares students to face workforce upon their study completion. Hence we should pay much more attention to this particular issue. Some of the problems found have something to do with complaints among students who are not well-prepared in their workplace. The results showed that most students found difficulties in their adaptation to the place they work for after graduation. And the number of graduates who decide to be entrepreneur is not over 10% annually (Widiyanto, 2011). Understanding and learning about entrepreneurship still focus on conceptual and theoretical areas. According to Davies (2002), entrepreneurship learning should be based on individual soft skill, because entrepreneurship is not just a theory, and it must include behavioral aspect and habits that build a strong character. Steiner and Watson (2006) assert that business character is the foundation of entrepreneurship which encourages entrepreneurs not just to make a profit, but to have social responsibility in order to form good behavior efficiently. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 To build characters that has the social responsibility, Draycott and Rae (2011) emphasized the need of entrepreneurship learning which determines individual competence by considering the main framework of basic competencies required by graduates. In their view, one of the entrepreneurship competences that students should have is the skill of finance management. According to Davies (2002) this kind of competency becomes an important key to successful entrepreneurship since many entrepreneurs fail because they lack of finance management skill. Entrepreneurship learning is the reason to realize the goal of vocational education, where all graduates are prepared prior to work, continue their study, and entrepreneurship (UUSPN No. 20 of 2003). Particularly, entrepreneurship is defined in the policy of the Minister of Cooperatives Small and Medium Enterprises No. 961 / KEP / M / XI / 1995: Entrepreneurs are people who have spirit, attitude, behavior and entrepreneurial abilities. Thus, it can be said that in order to be an entrepreneur, graduates must have behavior and entrepreneurial abilities or competence in the world of entrepreneur ship. According to Jones (2006), enterprise education creates a learning environment following an entrepreneur's way of life. Therefore, it is obvious that entrepreneurship learning should actually be implemented through practices because students need strong understanding of the environment that contributes to their views and ways of life shaped by someone else. In order to be able to focus more on this such learning, Draycott and Rae (2011) said that the need to establish a basic framework for entrepreneurial competence has to be based on facts and area fields. The development of entrepreneurship learning applied in the UK does not longer emphasize just on individual motivation and mental, but also supports competence improvement on funding and financial management, considering the fact that many new entrepreneurs collapsed when firstly set up and grow their business due to their lack of financial management skill (Mc Larty et al., 2010). The Results of the research conducted by Widiyanto and Yulianto (2013) states that it is important that entrepreneurial character-based learning improves financial literacy skills as well as building mental attitudes, motivation and communication skills, especially when graduates draw up operational costs and invest which often miscast so that the operating costs becomes very high as a result. The above explanation shows that entrepreneurship education should by far pay attention to the environment, though environment is not the most factor which leads to success, as shown on the concept of Taatila results of the study (2010) described as follows: Generative Learning Personal Interest Abductive knowledge creation Empowerment Motivation Development By product Ceaseless Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Picture 1. The Entrepreneurship Learning Cycle The above image emphasizes the need of entrepreneurial learning cycle which does not show that external forces drive learning activities, but learning must lead to self-motivation, and motivation has to be encouraged by environment, because it is a powerful influence in motivating individuals. By having strong motivation, students will be encouraged to reach their learning success. Financial literacy is the foundation and essential tool in financial education (PISA 2012 financial literacy), The National Financial Educators Council defines financial literacy as: "possessing the skills and knowledge on financial matters to confidently take effective action that best fulfills an individual's personal, family and global community goals (http://www.financialeducatorscouncil.org). From these two definitions, it can be seen that financial literacy is the foundation and tool which either becomes the expertise or knowledge about finances that enables individuals to take effective actions on the financial activities for the sake of individuals, families and global community. Financial literacy influences people to use their money wisely (Abbeson, 2008: 35-46).With financial literacy, people understand the function of money, motive in possession of money, the power of money, and how to spend it efficiently and effectively (Setiawan 2005; 178). Considering the importance of understanding financial problems, financial literacy should be included in the teaching and learning materials due to the benefits that people gain primarily in the business. According to (Len Boselovic, 2013) the goal of teaching financial literacy is to prepare students for their future because many adults tend to spend their money unwisely. Hence, there have been a lot of experts who advocate students to learn financial literacy and agree that it is to be included in school learning (Matt Kabala, Gene Natali Jr. of C.S. McKee; 2012). Acquiring financial literacy to forming entrepreneurship character is very important because many businesses mainly involve activities and jobs related to finance, capital preparation, cost accounting, and so on (Malshe; 2011.47-57). One thing to note that learning about financial literacy is not just theory but it is more importantly a practical knowledge that can be adopted for any purposes in life, and its characteristics can be taught at all levels of education. Method This study is aimed to find out (1) the importance of financial education for vocational students in Indonesia in terms of the framework of national financial education, (2) the integration of financial education practices in vocational education and (3) the students' understanding about Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 financial problems and the extent to which they are able to manage finances in vocational public school Semarang City. The study takes place at vocational public school Semarang City. The research approach used is the use of the two methods, both qualitative and quantitative approaches. According to Sugiyono (2010), the study may begin with the mixing methods using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. However, the things to be considered in the use of mixed method is that the features of each approach should not be engaged because the mixed method is an ongoing research. A qualitative approach (Bog&Biklen, 1998) or naturalistic (Lincoln &Guba, 1985) is intended to examine the natural phenomenon that is independent and free, or in the context of a purity / integrity of the entity. Considering the approach used, in describing the phenomenon, the researcher uses inductive procedure, in which human as the main instrument. Results and Discussion The Framework of National Financial Education Through financial literacy, people are expected to have understanding about financial institutions as well as financial products and services, including the benefits and risk of the products, the rights and obligations, and the skill of utilizing the financial products and services. In other words, hopefully financial literacy enables people to use financial products and services more effectively in accordance with their needs. This kind of situation will finally stimulate the financial service sectors to develop their education programs, products and services in accordance with the people's needs. Indonesia is not the first country applying the national strategy on financial literacy. The followings are the countries applying the strategy: Table 1. Countries Applying The Strategy Of Financial Literacy a. United Kingdom Towards a National Strategy for Financial Capability b. United States of Promoting Financial Success in the united states: National Strategy America for Financial Literacy c. Australia National Financial Literacy Strategy d. New Zealand National Strategy for Financial Literacy e. India National Strategy for Financial Education f. Canada Canadians and Their Money Building a Brighter Financial Future The results of the national survey on the implementation of Financial Literacy in semester 1 2013 (OJK, 2013) show that the Financial Literacy of people in Indonesia is still low, as shown in Graphic 2. In fact, in particular financial service sectors, the Financial Literacy Index of well literate people in Indonesia is also considered low. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Graphic 2: Financial Literacy Index and Financial Product and Service Utilities Concerning about this situation, a basic supporting framework for the national strategy on Financial Literacy which leads Indonesian people to have high literacy index (well literate) is very recommended, as shown in the picture below. Present Condition Peopl e Less Litera National Strategy on Financial Literacy Pillar 1 Pillar 2 Education and National Campaign on Financial Literacy Strengthening the Financial Literacy Infrastructure s Target Pillar 3 Financial Product and Service Developmen t Collaboration with Stakeholders Picture 3. Indonesia’s National Strategy on Financial δiteracy People Well Literat Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The Indonesia’s national strategy on financial literacy consists of 3 pillars as the basic framework supporting the Indonesian people to be well literate. Each pillar has different purposes, as follows: Pillar 1 Education and National Campaign on Financial Literacy: (a) Raising the public awareness, knowledge and skills about financial products and services, (b) Changing the people’s mindset and behaviors, and; )c) Increasing the number of financial product and service users. Pillar 2 Strengthening the Financial Literacy Infrastructures: (a) Strengthening and supporting the education programs and national campaign on Financial Literacy, (b) Enlarging and facilitating the access of information about Financial Literacy; and (c) Ensuring the continuity of the Financial Literacy program. Pillar 3 Financial Product and Service Development: (a) Encouraging the financial institutions to develop their financial products and services in accordance with the needs of people. (b) Encouraging the financial institutions to improve the quality of their financial products and services; and (c) Encouraging the financial institutions to expand their services and make them reachable for people. Characters in Vocational Education Profile Character education of the vocational School Students is very important to be implemented to build students’ character. Observations in Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City and Vocational Public School 9 Semarang City Department of Business and Management in Semarang show overview that character education curriculum is applied. Character values developed can be seen on Table 2. Table 2. Values Of Characters Developed In The Vocational School Vocational Public School 9 Semarang City Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City 1. National character values 1. National character values 2. Value of character in the vision and mission 2. Value of character in the vision and mission of the school of the school Vision: The hard working character, Vision: Realizing school quality, character, Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 professional, competent and being able to set and cultured environment in the global era. up entrepreneurship Mission: (a) Developing a learning climate that is guided by cultural norms and values of the nation, (b) Develop education and training system that is adaptive, flexible, and global perspective, (c) Prepare graduates who have knowledge and skills to be able to pursue their career in the field of office administration, accounting, entrepreneurship and continuing their study to higher education in marketing, (d) Providing excellent service to the community in realizing the government's program. Mission: (a) Equip students with knowledge, skills, good attitude and devotion to God Almighty, (b) Education and training based on life skills regarding the needs of the business / industrial world, (c) Produce well-prepared graduates who are competent and professionally able to live independently and to continue to higher education, (d) Build strong and conducive institutions with cultured environment by implementing the 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle), (e) Making the school become a center of competence testing and certification The factors that influences character education in vocational school are the learning process, values developed, extracurricular activities, school culture and vision of the school. The method used in character education is to integrate direct and indirect learning character values in both theory and practice. In addition, the learning activities are also supported by habituation and examples given by the teacher. The factors that influence the character of vocational education: classroom teachers, principals, media, friends and family in this case parents, brothers and sisters. The profile of character education in vocational school would not be separated from the main competence of graduates in professionalism, independence and self-employment. This is in line with the statement of the principal of Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City and Vocational Public School 9 Semarang City Semarang which says that: "As a vocational school or vocational course, we have to produce graduates who are professional and capable of self-employed and have good character. For the sake of that, we are trying our best to create good learning, innovation, cooperation and school culture that bring to the achievement of the competence and character.” As found in the theory δickona, )1992) said that the strategy of character education development in schools is creating a culture of morality in the school environment. This statement is also in line with the research conducted by Utaminingsih (2011) showing that the development of soft skills in character is determined by the character of culture in the existing school. The success of character education in vocational school is influenced because he made rules or school rules, then the school organizes the learning environment both inside and outside the classroom with symbols which support the achievement of the character. Teachers also share knowledge about the characters developed in the classroom learning and practice. Supporting facilities and components are also important in determining the successful cultivation of the entrepreneurship character. Some of the facilities available in Vocational Public School 9 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Semarang City Semarang and Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City Semarang include business centers, laboratories, libraries, galleries entrepreneurs, mini banks, cooperative school and practical materials for entrepreneurship programs. Entrepreneurship character in Vocational Public School 9 Semarang City Semarang and Semarang Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City is generally implemented through the following ways: (a) Providing materials of entrepreneurship such as a lesson on how to make business plan, (b) Making products, (c) Practice of selling the products, (d) Laboratory practices such as packaging practices, organizing items, accounting and any other related practices, (e) Job training, (f) Practicing in the school business unit such as business center, and mini bank. Implementing character education in school requires more systematic development and the implementation of management as a system, as shown in the model image below. Curriculum Teacher Moral Student based on Character Learning Equipment Local Genius Input Learning Methods Process Output Figure 4. The model of Character Development in Vocational High School The Profile of Financial Understanding and Management by the Students of Vocational School Forms of personal financial management in Vocational Public School 9 Semarang City Semarang and Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City Semarang are still quite simple Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 indicating that students generally do not have good personal financial planning. Simplicity is highly influenced by limited financial resources and family economy background which ranges from middle to low status. Almost 100% of vocational students obtain financial resources from their parents used only for school fees and pocket money. However, there are some children who have started entrepreneurship and making income such as simple cell phone balance, selling products on online shop and so on, although their income is not relatively high. Of the money brought from parents, they spend 85% percent for buying snacks and 15% they set aside for savings in school or elsewhere. The factors which affect the financial management of vocational students are: (a) The learning and teaching process, especially teachers; (b) Family, especially parents; (c) Social community in this case peers; (d) the media, such as television. There are only a few numbers of families who have financial plan for their children, especially those with unfixed job like sellers, merchants, etc. Examples of the planning are (a) a bank account; (b) land assets or goods; (c) insurance. Financial understanding to school students must include the meaning of money, its functions, financial need and management. Based on the test results of financial literacy, the competence of the students of Vocational Public School 9 Semarang City Semarang and Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City Semarang can be seen in the following table: Table 3. Financial Understanding Financial Dimensions Vocational Public School Vocational Public School ∑ 9 Semarang City 2 Semarang City AP AK PM RPL AP AK PM RPL The Meaning of Money 4 7 4 6 3 8 4 6 48 The Function of Money 3 9 2 2 3 7 3 8 37 The Need of Money 1 5 4 1 3 4 5 4 27 Financial Management 2 8 4 3 3 3 2 1 26 The Number of Respondents 10 18 12 10 10 12 18 10 100 From the above data a total of 100 students as respondents have understanding of finance. 50 students from each school participated in the research study different majors or courses of study; Office Administration (AP), Accounting (AK), Marketing (PM), and Engineering Software (RPL). The results shows that the level of understanding on the four dimensions is still below 50%, in which the highest number is found in understanding the meaning of money showing 48 people, function of money with 37 people, 27 people in understanding financial need and Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 management of personal finances representing only 26 people. This finding shows that the students still need to learn financial literacy. According to the interviews of the financial management of businesses it is obvious that students still have low understanding, as conveyed by the students as follows: “We still get confused about financial management of our own business because what we have in class is simply related to business plan and BEP.” Simple materials about financial management cannot still be used for making real financial business, said students as follows: “I am eager to do something for my parents’ business, but I do not really know where to start. What I gain from school cannot also be implemented for real.” The above findings provide a certain view that the students’ understanding on finance either personal or corporate financial management needs to be developed to build students character of entrepreneurship. The model of character education as a learning method in school applies three different ways including inclusive training, extracurricular and school culture. From the research findings gained in two locations, the supporting factors and obstacles are identified as follows. Table 4. The Supporting Factors of Character Education Method Learning Methods Vocational Public School 9 Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City Semarang City Inclusive Training Character education included in Character education curriculum included in curriculum Materials about professional Materials about professional character and attitude character and attitude Extracurricular Adequate activities extracurricular Adequate activities School Culture Building up manners in school extracurricular School rules Building up manners in school Kinship attitude School rules Kinship attitude Table 5. Factors Hindering the Character Education Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Learning Methods Vocational Public Semarang City School 9 Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City Inclusive Training Not all teachers make lesson Not all teachers plans lesson plans make The use of old materials without The use of old materials character values included in without character values training included in training Extracurricular Not all students attend the extra- Not all students attend the curricular activities extra-curricular activities The absence of extra-curricular The absence of extraguidance right to choose curricular guidance right to The students intention in choose participating in activities is to The students intention in follow the school obligations participating in activities is to follow the school obligations School Culture Penalties for violations have not Penalties for violations have been expressly applied not been expressly applied Lacking of culture of Lacking of culture professional attitude in school professional attitude The close relationship to the school alumni is still passive of in The close relationship to the alumni is still passive Financial Learning Model in Vocational School Learning finance (financial education) in vocational school has not been planned systematically by teachers as part of character education. Financial learning in general is all part of vocational subjects of entrepreneurship in school. Teachers have expressed financial management via text / reading / theory and practice such production practices, mini bank practices, the practice of school cooperatives, business center practices, sales practices and advice on the benefits of money. Learning methods are often used in the teaching of finance at Vocational Public School 9 Semarang City Semarang and Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City Semarang appropriate curriculum in 2013 as the following table Tabel 6. Scientific Approaches, Learning Models and Methods in Curriculum Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Scientific Approaches Learning Models Learning Methods Observing Discovery Learning Playing A Role Questioning Problem-Based Learning Troubleshooting Experimenting Project-Based Learning Questions And Answers Reasoning Discussion Communicating Demonstration Games Resource: Processed by Researcher The learning methods and models in Table 6 have generally been implemented in Vocational Public School 9 Semarang City Semarang and Vocational Public School 2 Semarang City Semarang as entrepreneurship learning including financial literacy. With learning models of discovery learning, problem-based learning and project-based learning, the students will understand and find the meaning of money so that they have strong knowledge, followed by good moral feeling, and it will be reflected on their attitudes and behavior, these findings reinforce δickona’s theory )1992). Conclusions 1. There is no national scheme of financial education for vocational schools and financial understanding gained does not support their success in entrepreneurship. 2. It shows that people’s understanding about financial management in Indonesian is generally low. 3. Character education in vocational school is influenced by teachers, school principals, peers and family. The values of characters developed are based on the character values recommended by Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia and the vision of the school. Besides, the values of entrepreneurial characters are also taught within the subjects of entrepreneurship. 4. The entrepreneurship character education in vocational school is internalized through subject matters, sales practices, production practices, business center practices, business plans and financial management in the mini banks. 5. The personal financial management vocational students is still relatively simple, students receive daily allowance, mostly for buying snacks and the rest is deposited in school or outside school. While the financial management of new business is theoretically implemented in the form of production cost analysis and Break Even Point. Reference Abbeson, Adam 2008; Financial Literacy for Education; Journal Financial & Accounting, 26/1 (2008) 35–46 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 -------------------,2013; Financial Literacy Definition; (http://www.financialeducatorscouncil.org/ financial-literacy-definition/) Bogdan, R.C. &Biklen. 1998. Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theory and Methods. Allyn and Bacon. Boston. London Davies, H. (2002), A Review of Enterprise and the Economy in Education, HM Treasury, London. Draycott, Matthew and Rae, David, 2011: Enterprise education in schools and the role of competency frameworks; International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research; Vol. 17 No. 2, 2011, pp. 127-145 Gene Natali Jr. and Matt Kabala (2012). The Missing Semester (Volume 1). Jones, C. )2006), “Enterprise education: introducing Whitehead to Gibbs”, Education + Training, Vol. 48 No. 5, pp. 356-67. Len Boselovic, 2013, Heard off the Street: Youths want financial literacy on syllabus, http://www.post-gazette.com/ Lincoln, Y &Guba, E. 1985. Naturalistic Inquiry. SAGE, Publications, Inc. California Lickona, Gaiane. (2003). My Thoghts about National Character. Kaliningrad Minister of Cooperatives Small and Medium Enterprises Number: 05 /PER/M.KUKM/IX/2010 Malshe, Avinash 2011; An exploration of key connections within financial literacy circumstances; Journal Financial & Accounting, 26/1 (2011) 47–57 Mc Larty, L., Highley, H. and Alderson, S. (2010), Evaluation of Enterprise Education in England, research report DFE-RR015, The Department for Education, London. Setiawan ,2005; The Objectives Financial Literacy for manager & accounting staff; Dissertation Unpublished, USM Penang, Malaysia Utaminingsih, Sri, 2011; Management Development Soft Skills Model of Vocational School Programs Tourism; Eksplanasi, volume 6 Number 2 September 2011 Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 20 Year 2003 on National Education System Indonesia Steiner, S.D. and Watson, ε.A. )2006), “The service learning component in business education: the values linkage void”, Academy of εanagement δearning & Education, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 422-434. National Strategy for Financial Indonesia, the Financial Services Authority (OJK), 2013. Jakarta: Indonesia Sugiyono, 2010, Quantitative Research Methods, Qualitative and R & D, Publisher Alfabeta, Bandung Taatila, Vesa P., 2010; Learning entrepreneurship in higher education; Education + Training, Vol. 52 No. 1, 2010, pp. 48-61 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Weber, John W. and Englehart, Steven W. (2011); Enhancing business education through integrated curriculum delivery; Journal of Management Development, Vol. 30 No. 6, 2011 ,pp. 558-568 Widiyanto and Yulianto, Arief, 2013, Character Based Learning Innovation Entrepreneurial for Programs Business and Management Vocational School; Competitive Research Grant Widiyanto, 2011; Worker Competency Role against Industrial Supplies to Improve Competitiveness of the Company; Explanation, vol 8 No. 1 Issue March 2011 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Affective strategies and school engagement of abandoned students in learning process Hajar MAYMOUN Faculty of Educational Sciences, Mohammed V University, Rabat-Morocco Abstract: The purpose of this study is to measure the effect of using affective strategies on abandoned students’ engagement in learning process. Furthermore, it aims to identify their needs and help to satisfy them. This study is based on a sample of 60 abandoned students who are enrolled in 7th and 8th grades in middle school and coming from social protection centers in Rabat, Sale, Temara, Kenitra, Casablanca, Mohammadia and Benslimane cities. We used two translated, adapted and validated measuring scales. The first one is named Scale of School Engagement. It includes 19 items divided according to three components represented as a multidimensional construct: behavioral, emotional and cognitive engagement components. The second one relies on the scale of affective strategies in learning process. It includes 37 items and is divided into five dimensions: the effort avoidance, the social image, the external anxiety control, the intrinsic motivation, the internal anxiety control. According to statistical analysis especially, correlation coefficient and simple linear regression, the results show that school engagement of abandoned students is very low, and it is related to the lack of using affective strategies. Besides, the students have less orientation towards strategies of controlling motivation and controlling external and internal anxiety. However, they have a remarkable tendency towards using defensive strategies such as strategy of effort avoidance and strategy of social image protection. Based on these results, we will suggest a technical sheet of psycho-educational intervention project in order to develop affective strategies, and therefore to promote students’ engagement in learning process, and also help to integrate them in social and professional lives. Keywords: Affective strategies, defensives strategies, engagement, learning process, task. Introduction General context of study Abandoned students represent a special category of students with learning difficulties. They are often expressing an unbalanced emotional state due to maternal deprivation or separation continues the caregiving (Bowlby, 1954; Aisnworth, 1978). Thus, being a nervous, frustrated, demotivated student may not only influence his school performance but also his school engagement in learning process (Gaspari-Carrière, 1989; Lemay, 1994). This situation pushes us to review school roles. Especially to admit that nowadays, it is not enough to transmit the knowledge to the abandoned students in school but it should teach them how to be motivated, engaged and to use efficiently this knowledge. So to achieve this goal, we need to prepare and to equip these students with the affective learning strategies, as a consequence, to make them responsible for their own learning process regulation. This new educational vision embarks from principals of active and modern pedagogy as it can be seen in theory of Philippe Meirieu (2009) which presented "educability" principal. It indicates that every student is able to learn, to grow and to develop whatever his situation. Theory of Carl Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Rogers (1959) is also taken into count. The central premise of this theory stipulates that every student has a potential which should be mobilized for moving from difficulty state to well-being state (Alcorta, 2008; Meirieu, 2009). Significance of this vision lies in students’ competences to adjust to different school solicitation and not the opposite. Improving all the conditions of teaching and learning process, where affective aspects are valued as much as cognitive aspects, requires implantation of global educational reform in long time. However, equipment students with affective strategies will be a new track to follow. Teaching them how to auto-regulate their negative emotion and to generate a desire to learn efficiently, within the framework of structured and formalized approach. Objectives This study aims to measure the effect of using affective strategies on abandoned students’ engagement in learning process. Furthermore, it aims to create them a profile for an in-depth understanding of kind and level of using the affective strategies in the learning process. Theoretical framework The subject treated is situated into modern educational sciences literature, particularly theories that were put to the advantage of student contribution in knowledge construction as active agent. Since affective learning strategies and school engagement are basic concepts in this study, we will try to make explicit its theoretical foundations and to try to understand the connection between its. Learning strategies concept At first, why not start by an introduction of learning strategies as a fundamental and an important concept. Learning strategies concept was born in cognitive psychology field then transited to educational sciences field. δegendre )1993) defined learning strategies in Wolfs’book (2001, p. 23) as a set of operations and resources planned by subject (sujet) in order to promote objectives achievement in pedagogical situation. Moreover, many taxonomies were given to learning strategies. One essential taxonomy was introduced by Boulet & al (1996) where strategies were classified in four domains and subdivided into sub strategies. Cognitive strategies It’s a set of mental activities )acquisition, storage, transformation, using of knowledge) employed in processing information (Bégin, 2008). Cognitive sub strategies rely on repetition, elaboration, organization, generalization, discrimination and knowledge compilation (Boulet & al, 1996). Metacognitive strategies It refers to student’ ability to be aware and to understand his own cognitive functioning and, consequently, to be able to control and to regulate it (Bégin, 2008; Bosson, & Al, 2009; Lafont, & Al, 2012). Regulation, planning, assessment and control were named as metacognitve sub strategies (Boulet & al, 1996). Management resources strategies It’s a mobilization of temporal, human and materiel resources with a view to setting suitable learning conditions (Lafont, & Al, 2012). As management resources sub strategies, we found time management, resources organization and identifying and using resources (Boulet & al, 1996). Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Affective strategies In fact, there is a rarity of literature about this concept regarding the cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies concept. It is defined as a repertoire of actions, activities, behaviors, thoughts and resources mobilized and conducted by a learner to control and regulate his affective state, therefore ensuring favorable conditions to a successful learning (Larue & Cossette, 2005). In this context, numerous researches (Boulet, Savoie- Zajc, & Chevrier, 1996) distinguished three sub strategies of affective learning. Some sub strategies of them were associated with internal regulation through motivation and emotion regulation, and some others were linked to external regulation mainly to concentration (reported by Viau, 1997; Carré & Fenouillet, 2009; Cosnefroy, 2011; Berger, 2012; Delbar, 2013). - Managing emotion sub strategy : consists on reducing the intensity of emotional interference and ensuring the internal and external anxiety control that promote learning . This sub strategy is exemplified by a set of techniques such as inner speech (Corno, 1989); strengthening sense of competence (Bandura, 2003); self encouragement (Cosnefroy, 2011); activating memories of success (Delbar, 2013) and strengthening of task controllability (Viau, 1997). - Maintaining motivation sub strategy : aims to generate interest and motivation required before and during tasks execution. This sub strategy implies some techniques, as demonstrated by strengthening of school tasks value, expectations of success (Eccles &Wigfield, 1995); goals setting namely mastery goals, performance goals (Pintrich, 2000); mastery-challenge goals (Grant & Dweck, 2003); avoiding work goals (Nicholls, 1989), setting up reward system (Zimmerman & Pons, 1988-1990) and strengthening sense of self determination (Deci & Ryan, 1991). - Attention and concentration support sub strategy : drowns on technique of environmental structuring (Zimmerman, 1989). It depicts the ability to eliminate distraction factors such as a noise and to stimulate positive elements which can maintain concentration and enhance knowledge assimilation process. 2. School engagement concept Literature review about school engagement concept demonstrated confusion in terms of its operationalization and its measures. Authors borrowed various variables, dimensions and indicators for conceptualizing school engagement. However, this theoretical gap eventually was filled with the fruitful contribution of Jimerson & his colleagues (2003) and Fredricks & his colleagues (2004). They suggested an operational definition of school engagement: "Behavioral engagement draws on the idea of participation. Cognitive engagement draws on the idea of investment. Emotional engagement draws on the idea of appeal" (Blumenfeld & Al, 2005, p. 147 reported by Bernet, 2010, p.34). In addition to that, Fredricks & his colleagues (2004; 2005) formulated both a specific reference model of school engagement where engagement was designed as a multidimensional construct including three dimensions dynamically interrelated, and an instrument (scale) for measuring it. 2.1. Behavioral engagement It implies the participation in school tasks and involvement in school, extracurricular and social activities. Equally, behavioral engagement relates to positive conducts as adhering to classroom rules and avoiding disruptive conducts (Fin, 1993; Fredricks, Blumenfeld & Paris, 2004; Fredricks, Blumenfeld, Friedel, & Paris, 2005). Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 2.2. Emotional engagement It refers to students’ affective reactions to the teachers, to the class peers and to the school. These reactions can be measured by interest, value, identification to the school, emotions of sadness, happiness, anxiety…etc. )Fredricks, Blumenfeld & Paris, 2004; Fredricks, Blumenfeld, Friedel, & Paris, 2005). 2.3. Cognitive engagement It touches on the idea of efforts investment in school tasks and involves self-regulation by using learning strategies. Cognitive engagement stipulates that preference for challenge, flexibility in problem solving and mastering the tasks (Fredricks, Blumenfeld & Paris, 2004; Fredricks, Blumenfeld, Friedel, & Paris, 2005). From the conceptualization of major notions, it can be concluded that using affective strategies has multiple positive effects on student’s performance and on his school engagement. So testing causal relationship between it will be the subject of practical part. Using affective strategies School engagement Effect - Managing emotion - Behavioral engagement - Maintaining motivation - Emotional engagement - Concentration supportconcepts Figure (1): Link between - Cognitive engagement Statement of problem and hypothesis Statement of Problem Actually, many drawbacks which stifle education of abandoned students. Both personal and environmental factors should be taken into consideration. Abandoned students suffer from maternal deprivation that may result in long time social, affective and cognitive difficulties. In terms of school difficulties, Gaspari-Carrière (1989) concluded that abandoned students have a lot of problems in school, as can be seen in lack of attention, aggressive attitudes, failure to adapt to school life )etc). At this juncture, school doesn’t provide any monitoring program in aid of this category of students. Besides, teaching practices are not flexible enough to be adapted with students’ individual specificities. εost of time, teachers construct an "epistemic subjective" with the same method and in the same context. In others words, they attached more importance to transmission of knowledge without interesting in affective and cognitive learning process of student abandoned. Viau (1997), Pintrich (1990), Deci (1991) & Weiner (1992) focused on affective’ dimension impact in learning process. For them, motivation regulation or emotion regulation remain a crucial element that support knowledge acquisition, and the best mobilization of cognitive and metacognitve learning strategies (Viau, 1997; Carré & Fenouillet, 2009). So, understanding lack of school engagement and performance of abandoned students implies understanding exactly the kind and the level of using affective strategies. In addition to how they control their affective states during learning process. Based on this statement of the problem, the Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 main research question will be as follows: The low school engagement of abandoned students, is it related to insufficient and inefficient using of affective learning strategies? Statement of hypothesis In order to answer this question, we formulated research hypothesis as follows: The low school engagement of abandoned students is related to insufficient and inefficient using the affective strategies in learning process. Methodology With the aim of examining this hypothesis, we adopted the quantitative methodology. This needs a particular and coherent protocol that refers to scales as data collect tools and to statistical analysis of data collected. Sampling method and sample 1.1. Sampling method The sample made up of 60 abandoned students who were selected through no probability sampling mainly quota sampling. This sampling method was used depending on three selection criteria: a). the child should be abandoned according to the following cases: be born from unknown parents or mother, be orphan or having parents unable to fulfil their needs b). The student should live in social protection centres, c). The student should study in 7th and 8th grades in middle school, similarly in formal and public classes. 1.2. Sample characteristics As a description of this sample, 51,7% of participants were female students whereas 48,3% of them were male students. Their average age was determined between 12 and 18 years. Those students were enrolled in 7th (65%) and 8th (35%) grades in middle school and coming from social protection centres in Rabat, Sale, Temara, Kenitra, Casablanca, Mohammadia and Benslimane cities. Regarding school performance, half participants (50%) got less than average (10/20). Data collect tools The method of data collection implied using of two instruments, especially; two translated, adapted and validated measuring scales. On the one hand, we translated scales from English language to Arabic language. On the other hand, each translated and adapted version was validated by university professor’s specialists. In order to ensure the quality of the data collected, we carried out a pre-test of these two scales and we examined its psychometric properties in terms of the reliability )Cronbach’s Alpha) and the validity (correlation matrix). In essence, calculation results were satisfactory and data collected was very reliable. The first one is named Scale of School Engagement developed by Fredericks, J.A., Blumenfeld, P., Friedel, J., & Paris, A. in 2005. It includes 19 items divided according to three components represented as a multidimensional construct: behavioral, emotional and cognitive engagement components. This scale use Likert-type scale, with five response options from 1 (never) to 5 (always). More importantly, measure of total scale reliability (Arabic version) indicates that adequate internal consistency with a= 0.83 in comparison to total scale reliability (English Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 version) with a= 0.86. Additionally, validity of scale was very good, the correlation between different scale dimensions was satisfactory (r>0,01). Table (1) : Correlation matrix of school engagement scale Behavioral engagement Behavioral engagement Emotional engagement Cognitive engagement 1,000 ,645 ,454 1,000 ,543 Emotional engagement Cognitive engagement 1,000 The second one draws on the scale of affective strategies in learning process which developed by Lourdes Villardón-Gallego & Concepción Yàniz in 2014. It includes 37 items and is divided into five dimensions: the effort avoidance, the social image, the external anxiety control, the intrinsic motivation, the internal anxiety control. The Likert-type scale used is with five response options from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 ( strongly agree). Psychometric properties of this scale (Arabic version) shows that reliability measures reflects a greater internal consistency with a=0.80 regarding to the reliability of English version scale with a=0.92. As demonstrated by table (2), validity measures was generally satisfactory (r>0,01), and all dimensions of affective strategies scale were correlated. Table (2) : Correlation matrix of affective learning strategies scale Effort avoidance Effort avoidance Social image External anxiety control Intrinsic motivation Internal anxiety control 1,000 ,132 -,071 -,461 -,425 1,000 ,179 ,014 ,198 1,000 ,369 ,485 1,000 ,592 Social image External anxiety control Intrinsic motivation Internal anxiety control Data collection procedures 1,000 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Distributing questionnaires took place in centers; it was under educators and our supervision. Together we insisted on respect of research ethics insofar as we informed students by the context of the study and that their participation was voluntary. Then we showed them baggage room and answers’ mode. In essence, it was noticed that participants’ students filled in surveys individually in an hour time. The data was analyzed by SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) software. Precisely, we concentrated on univariate analysis (calculation of mean) and bivariated analysis (calculation of correlation and simple regression). Results Presentation and analysis results Table )3) shows that abandoned students’ school engagement in general )ε=2,64) and students’ behavioral engagement (M=3,06), emotional engagement (M=2,84) and cognitive engagement (M=2,22) in particular are very low. Table (3) : Mean of school engagement Statistics Behavioral engagement Emotional engagement Cognitive engagement Total score of school engagement Valid 60 60 60 60 Missing 0 0 0 0 Mean 3,0667 2,8444 2,2292 2,6439 Std. Deviation ,68561 ,70768 ,56989 ,53817 Minimum 1,60 1,17 1,25 1,63 Maximum 4,60 4,00 4,13 3,89 N In terms of behavioral engagement, abandoned students often don’t adhere to classroom rules, get trouble at school, don’t pay attention in classroom and don’t complete their tasks on time. Abandoned students express also a low level of school emotional engagement. They love to be in school but not interested in the work at class. In the same way, these students are less engaged in cognitive level. They have less investment in learning and manifest a misusing cognitive and metacognitve learning strategies. Table (4) indicates that these students have a remarkable tendency towards using defensive strategies such as a strategy of effort avoidance (M= 0,48) and a strategy of social image protection (M= 0,29). However, they have less orientation towards efficient strategies such as Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 that strategy of controlling external anxiety (M= -0,13), the other strategy of controlling motivation (M= -0,36) and the strategy of controlling internal anxiety (M= -0,30). Table (4) : Mean of using affective learning strategies Statistics Social External Effort image anxiety avoidance protection control Internal Intrinsic anxiety motivation control Total score of using learning affective strategies Valid 60 60 60 60 60 60 Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean ,4875 ,2931 -,1333 -,3619 -,3015 -,0099 Std. Deviation ,77627 ,55500 ,75215 ,68409 ,72910 ,40943 Minimum -1,50 -1,00 -1,67 -1,57 -1,55 -1,11 Maximum 2,00 1,50 1,67 1,43 1,64 ,78 N In light of what table (4) presents as fundamental results, we chose to go into it too deeply. In using defensive strategies level, abandoned students often try to avoid difficult tasks and chose easy ones where they can get a passing grade (effort avoidance strategy). Equally, they aim not to look incompetent in front classmates and teachers. As well, they look for others to recognize their efforts. Nevertheless, they seem to be less competitive than others. All these aspects attest using social image protection strategy. At using efficient affective strategies level, it can be noted that abandoned students have a low external anxiety control, since they don’t express a sense of tasks controllability. This is to say, using external attribution rather than internal attribution for explaining fail or success of their tasks. Also, using intrinsic motivation strategy is insufficient because students attach less value on school tasks and they don’t look for improving their skills and mastery knowledge as major goals. In the same context, these students are less oriented to using internal anxiety control strategy; to the extent they don’t resort frequently to inner speech so as to generate positive emotional state. Also they don’t express a greater sense of self competence as they fell inefficient and incompetent to get a task successfully. The main result (table (5)) postulates that school engagement of abandoned students is significantly correlated (p=0,003<0,05) with using of affective learning strategies (r = 0,372). In these terms, the more students resort to using affective strategies, the more their school engagement level increases. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Table (5) : Correlation coefficient between school engagement and using affective strategies Correlations Total score learning strategies Total score of school Pearson Correlation engagement Sig. (2-tailed) N of using affective ,372** ,003 60 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). According to simple linear regression, it reveals that there is the cause and effect relationship between variables. In this sense, insufficient and inefficient using affective strategies in learning process have an effect on abandoned students’ school engagement. Table (6) : Regression coefficients Model Summary Change Statistics Model R 1 R Adjusted R Std. Error of R Square F Sig. F Square Square the Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change ,433a ,187 ,173 ,48938 ,187 13,350 1 58 ,001 a. Predictors: (Constant), Effort avoidance Table (6) clearly illustrates a significant and causal relationship (R= -0,433; p=0,001) between explanatory variable (effort avoidance) and dependant variable (school engagement). Moreover, coefficient of determination (R²) is equal to 0,187, thus 18% of school engagement variance is explained by using effort avoidance strategy. Table (7) : Regression coefficients Model Summary Change Statistics Model R R Adjusted R Std. Error of Square Square the Estimate R Square F df1 df2 Sig. F Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 1 ,063a ,004 -,013 ,54172 Change Change ,004 ,229 Change 1 58 ,634 a. Predictors: (Constant), Social image protection Content ‘table )7) confirms that causal relationship is not significant )p= 0,63> 0,05) between explanatory variable (social image protection) and dependant variable (school engagement). Besides, coefficient of determination (R²) is equal to 0,004, thus 0,4% of school engagement variance is explained by using of social image protection strategy. Table (8) : Regression coefficients Model Summary Change Statistics Model R 1 R Adjusted R Std. Error of R Square F Sig. F Square Square the Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change ,325a ,106 ,090 ,51330 ,106 6,856 1 58 ,011 a. Predictors: (Constant), External anxiety control From table (8), causal relationship between explanatory variable (external anxiety control) and dependant variable (school engagement) proves as significant (R= 0,325 ; p= 0,01). Furthermore, using external anxiety control strategy explains 10% of school engagement variance (R²= 0,106). Table (9) : Regression coefficients Model Summary Change Statistics Model R 1 R Adjusted R Std. Error of R Square F Sig. F Square Square the Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change ,637a ,406 ,396 ,41823 ,406 39,694 1 58 ,000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Intrinsic motivation According to table )9), it’s noted the presence of a significant and causal relationship )R= 0,637; p<0,05) between explanatory variable (intrinsic motivation) and dependant variable (school Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 engagement). Also, coefficient of determination (R²) is equal to 0,406, thus 40% of school engagement variance is explained by using intrinsic motivation strategy. Table (10) : Regression coefficients Model Summary Change Statistics Model R 1 R Adjusted R Std. Error of R Square F Sig. F Square Square the Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change ,455a ,207 ,194 ,48324 ,207 15,176 1 58 ,000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Internal anxiety control Table (10) reveals that there is a significant and causal relationship (p<0,05) between explanatory variable (internal anxiety control) and dependant variable (school engagement). Additionally, using of internal anxiety control strategy predicts 20% of school engagement variance (R²= 0,207). Discussion In view of the foregoing, insufficient and inefficient using affective strategies by abandoned students in learning process decrease their school engagement level. This result agrees with works of Corno (2000) and Cosnefroy (2011) who mentioned the positive effect of using affective strategies on maintaining cognitive effort and protection engagement level during learning process (Cosnefroy, 2011). Equally important is that abandoned students use sufficiently defensive strategies namely avoidance effort strategy and social image protection strategy. This result stands in Vianin’s perspective (2009). Students with learning difficulties often refer to using inefficient learning strategies and evoke them in an inappropriate context. An interpretation given in this sense stipulates that abandoned students suffer from negative effects of maternal deprivation (Bowlby, 1954). They grow up with delicate psychological structure. That’s why, they are oriented towards avoidance situations that arouse unpleasant affective states in learning process. So their ultimate goal is protecting one’s image and being regarded by others. Nevertheless, this tendency can prevent them from using other efficient affective strategies. Firstly, majority of respondents represent low performance (50% of them have grade inferior to average), as well as they seem to be less motivated since they don’t have any future project or school aims to achieve. According to Deci’ conception, this student aims to satisfactory relatedness need more than satisfactory competence and autonomy need. They prefer to maintain closer relationships and ensure sense of social belonging. Secondly, if these students don’t attach more value to their own school task, they won’t be able to control its functioning and consequences adequately. They usually attribute their difficulties to external factors for avoiding to blame themselves. Finally, because of lack of intrinsic motivation, these students feel like incompetent to do their tasks. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 As discussed above, low school engagement of abandoned students refers to using defensive strategies. For them, self image protection precede an investment of cognitive effort and exercise difficult tasks which can evoke unpleasant emotions (stress, anxiety,..). Conclusion To sum up, the study’s purpose was to understand the kind and level of using the affective strategies by abandoned students in learning process. Precisely, examining the using’ effects on their school engagement. To this end, a consistent methodological device was conducted and allowed to verify the research hypothesis. The low school engagement of abandoned students is related to insufficient and inefficient using affective strategies in learning process. They resort frequently to defensive strategies but then less to efficient affective strategies represented by motivation and emotion regulation. Limits research This study was limited to understanding only nature and level of using affective learning strategies without treating cognitive and metacognitve learning strategies. Methodologically speaking, we were content with two scales while we didn’t evoke other measure instruments, we didn’t imply other participants as teachers and educators of abandoned students. Perspectives research In this study, we tried to present our vision which aims to help abandoned students based on their own potentials. We could test a research hypothesis and as a result create a descriptive profile. Relying on this profile, we will suggest a technical sheet of psycho-educational intervention project in order to develop affective strategies, and therefore to enhance students’ engagement in learning process. In essence, this project will focus on four programs: Program of emotion regulation Program of motivation regulation Program of self-development Program of support school Each program has a special and general objective; it will apply for a special period and place. It incorporates a series of activities, workshops; sessions would be contacted by the specialists. Moreover, this project will be evaluated by a particular assessment device (pre-assessment, postassessment). References Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1983). L'attachement mère-enfant. In Enfance, 36 (1-2), 7-18. Alcorta, M. (2008). Les caractéristiques psychologiques des élèves : La face cachée de l'école. 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Boulet, A., Savoie-Zajc, L., & Chevrier, J. (1996). Les Stratégies d'apprentissage à l'université. (1er édition). Québec : Presse de l’Université du Québec. Bowlby. J. (1954). Soins maternels et santé mentale. Genève : La Série de Monographies de l’Organisation εondiale de la Santé. Carré, P., & Fenouillet, F. (2009). Traité de psychologie de motivation. (1re édition). Paris : Dunod. Cosnefroy, δ. )2011). δ’apprentissage autorégulé : Entre cognition et motivation. )1re édition). Grenoble cedex 1 : Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. Delbar, L. (2013). Etude des différences dans les stratégies de volition utilisées par des élèves de cycle 3 niveau CM1-CM2. Education. 4,4-25. Finn, J. D. (1993). School engagement and student at risk. Washington : Nation Centre for Education Statistics. Fredricks, J., Blumenfeld, P., & Paris, A. (2004). School Engagement: Potential of the Concept, State of the Evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74 (1), 59-109. Fredricks, J., Blumenfeld, P., Friedel, J., & Paris, A. (2005). School engagement. In K.A. Moore & L. Lippman (Eds.), What do children need to flourish?: Conceptualizing and measuring indicators of positive development. New York, NY: Springer Science and Business Media. Gaspari-Carrière, F. )1989). δes enfants de l’abandon : Traumatismes et déchirures narcissiques. (1re édition). Toulouse Cedex : Editions Privat. Lafont, P., & al. (2012). Stratégies d'apprentissage et cours dématérialisés en formation infirmière. Recherche en soins infirmiers, 4 (111), 81-100. δarue, C., & Cossette, R. )2005). Stratégies d’apprentissage et apprentissage par problème. Rapport de recherche. Québec : Cégep du Vieux Montréal. Lemay, M. (1994). Les conséquences de l'abandon sur le développement psychosocial de l'enfant et dans ses relations personnelles et sociales. R.D.U.S, (25), Montréal, Université Montréal. Meirieu, Ph. (2009). Le pari de l'éducabilité. Les soirées de l'enpjj. 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Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The discursive Formations of Female Spirituality: Decentering Phallic Ideologies in Moroccan Orthodox Hagiography: Reflections on Jaafar Kettani’s Salwat al-anfas and Yusuf Ibn Yahya Tadili’s Tashawwuf ila rijal at-tasawwuf Sarah Hebbouch Abstract Moroccan hagiographic discourse has centered on the analysis of a set of religious practices related primarily to men, but in which women have been seen only from the prism of orthodox religion. Yet, the hagiographic texts (under scrutiny in this paper) have not been able to understand the complexity of women’s religious life. This paper investigates the complexity of a narrative construction of female sanctity in two major hagiographic works related to Medieval εorocco, namely Sidi εohammed Ben Jaafar Kettani’s Salwat al-anfas, and Yusuf Ibn Yahya Tadili’s Tashawwuf ila rijal at-tasawwuf, thereby bringing insights into the hermeneutics of hagiographic literature. Salwat al-anfas is an early known 19th Century book-length biography of a number of early Sufi men and women in Fès. Although the biography does not differ from early hagiographical texts, Kettani introduces a complex body of women’s spirituality. The text, indeed, contains a complex relationship between orthodox and informal piety or religion. More importantly, alternative spaces of religiosity are discursively embedded issues in the biographical entries of Kettani’s work. Tashawwuf ila rijal at-tasawwuf, on the other hand, features a scant number of women, being labeled Majhulat (anonymous), as marginal agents in this hagiographic literature. The current paper considers how it is important to realize the organic role that early hagiohistoriographic texts played in showcasing women’s sanctity. Yet, these texts were also shot through with patriarchal bargaining, women’s incongruence with patriarchal demands, and assumptions about women’s religious expression. CONTEXTUAδIZING WOεEN’S SPIRITUAδITY Women’s marginalization in the spiritual sphere can be largely attributed to a number of sociocultural factors. In εohamed El Hati’s contention, it was partly due to callous historians, who were likely unwilling to document women’s contribution to this field16. (El Hati, 2011) Another no less weighty factor, which has, in a way or another, demeaned the chance of having rich hagiographic literature was ‘asceticism’, which is the practice of strict self-denial as a measure of personal and spiritual discipline. (ibid) Many of the ascetic people charged themselves with religious imperfection, and thought they were not entitled to write or tell their accounts, the reason explaining why the circulation of such stories on female saints paled because sufism and spiritual life was deemed to be practised only by men. Although their contribution to the religious field was immense, female Sufis received little literary merit. The marginalization of women Boubrik (2010: 13) contends, yields to a number of binding socio-cultural factors such as that most of the middle ages’ scholars were preoccupied 16 Retrieved from: http://www.aljounaid.ma/Article.aspx?C=5881 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 with giving a religious legitimacy to the status of women by having recourse to the sacred scripture: a conscious attempt to endorse the marginal image about women. (Rahal, 2010: 13) This marginalization, furthermore, stems from the omnipresence of an ideology of division that placed women and men in separate spheres. Such an ideology nurtured the systematic exclusion of women in the public sphere and provided a simplified taxonomy of women in the sanctified domestic/private realm. This has the backdrop of why anonymity surrounded the lives of a wide number of female Sufis who appeared in many hagiographies as ‘majhulat’ or anonymous in the biographical entries of major male-produced hagiographies. Considering this aspect, these scholarly writings or hagiographies are often-times accredited to some religious scholars or jurists who belonged to a long-established tradition of formal male scholarly elite, and so female sanctity needed constant validation from orthodox scholars/ theologians. In this respect, Vincent Cornell )1998: 99) postulates that it is the Ulama ‘scholars’ who validated the status of Sufis through memorializing Sufis’ piety and virtue since the latter embodied values of Sunni Islam, the reason why they deserved being canonized. In fact, orthodox/formal versus popular/folkloric Islam has occupied much of the debate in modern hagiographic/anthropological works. In orthodox Islam or Sunni Islam, women’s freedom has been widely contested, which set both trends (i.e. formal/ informal forms of religious expression) in a collision course, whereas, in popular/folkloric Islam, they have been granted some sort of freedom of practice.17 Women’s limited access within the εuslim legal tradition urged them to look for alternative religious spaces to practice their religiosity. (Strobel, 1979: 78) Unlike the mosque, which follows a patriarchal model usually giving a limited access for women, the Sufi lodge or Zawiya is a women-friendly space where alienation disappears and where space is done with no canonized standards. (ibid) HAGIOGRAPHY ON MOROCCAN SUFI WOMEN: STORIES OF DEVOUT WOMEN History of Sufi women in Moroccan hagiography is fraught with archetypes of ascetic women in the medieval hagiographic literature. One of the archetypes of these hagio-historiographies is Tashawwuf ila rijal Tasawwuf (Insights into the Traditions Bearers of Sufism) by Yusuf Ibn Zayyat at-Tadili, a “valuable source material” which studies “the early seeds of εoroccan sainthood.” )Ephrat, 2002: 67) Tashawwuf is a collection of two hundred and seventy seven hagiographic entries written in the 13th Century which are mainly devoted to the Sufi saints ‘the Awliyā Allah’ in “areas of southern εorocco during the Almoravid and Almohad periods”. (ibid: 68) Tadili was not the precursor of the hagiographic genre, but he assumed the responsibility of documenting accounts of plethora of saintly figures that had orally been preserved and transmitted, beginning each entry with an acknowledgement to the chain of reliable reporters ‘sanad’ to give more validity to his accounts. Tashawwuf, indeed, abounds with accounts of Muslims from different social standing who retreated into saints in moments of crisis, like “natural calamities, starvation, or acts of injustice and oppression by the powerful”. (Ephrat: 69) For the most part, the production of hagiographic literature accredited authoritative approval to these saints because the documented accounts and miracles asserted the saint’s power over the Popular religion or “le maraboutisme” is a body of beliefs and practices congruent with individuals and spaces to which Muslims confer an extraordinary power. Maraboutism or visiting Sufi lodges is a phenomenon related to Sufism. It has not only religious functions, but also social and psychological ones. Sophie Ferchiou, “Survivances εystiques” cited in Rahal Boubrik, p. 179. 17 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 devotees. Most pre-modern hagiographers played, as a matter of fact, a role in propagating orthodox piety since most of them adhered to Legal Islam.18 Tadili gives mention to the ‘highborn’ or the Sharif paradigm )i.e. descendant of the Prophet). Therefore, a saint is officially canonized when his genealogy hails from a high-born origin: a sine qua none to strengthen the eternal family unit. The saint is a moral exemplar and being a descendant of the prophet approved his merit of virtue. (ibid: 70) Tashawwuf addresses a recurrent representation of women as virgin, celibate, or not having experienced marital relations. Tadili considers the story of a woman he labeled ‘imra’a majhula’ (an anonymous woman). He saw people hovering around her grave asking for her blessings. When asked about her, he was told she was the sister of Abdelaziz Tounsi, a Moroccan scholar; she gradually detached herself from worldly pleasures and died ‘bikr’ virgin. )Tadili: 94) The author exemplifies this through the story of ‘shabba majhula’ )an anonymous young woman) who retreated into a cave worshipping the Divine until she died. (Tadili: 265-266) It appears as well that virginity, in this regard, alludes to a prerequisite for sainthood because the virgin or celibate ‘waliya’ is pinned down in the collective perception prevailing in community speech as being endowed with purified faith and never having been tarnished by any profane act or conduct. The mainstream perception about virginity, celibacy, and asceticism is generally conceived of as being overpowered by prevalent paradigms of female spirituality’s consecrated life. Celibacy, in this sense, is not an ascetic concern since it permits women’s negotiation of their being in public. As for attitudes towards women, in my contention, it is by virtue of celibacy that they enjoy autonomous visibility and inclusion within the mainstream religious sphere. This also constitutes an annihilation of any form of disruption to the spatial ethical integrity or the territorial division of space into feminine and masculine. Tadili, nonetheless, relates an instance in which female public visibility was negotiated against the background of a male-dominated space. The author (2014: 386) gives mention to the story of an anonymous old woman, apparently devout, who accidently fell off her donkey while two men were coming. Out of fear, the two men deliberately turned their heads fearing that parts of the old woman’s body would be uncover. The author raises the question of the spiritual aspect of the emerging paradigm of female Sufis, which is further illustrated by Tadili through the example of Mounayya Bent Maimoun aalDoukkali, a devout woman from Meknes who lived in Ribat of Shakir19 around the vicinity of Marrakech. Tadili mentions her story saying that she used to consume an insufficient amount of food, by restricting the physical whims of her body. This was a spiritual exercise she endured until she became skinny and her skin blackened. (Tadili: 316) But still, her visit to Ribat of Shakir in Ramadan to recite the last chapter of the Qur’an displayed the systematic marginalization of women in hagiographical accounts, and disregarded women’s religious legacy. She said in one of her discussions “over a thousand female saints visited Ribat of Shakir this year,” reported by Tadili. 19 Ribat of Shakir is the first Sufi hermitage in Morocco. It was built around the 4th Century of the Hegir calendar. Retrieved from: http://archive.aawsat.com/details.asp?section=17&article=669884&issueno=12173#.VzsAd9KLTMw Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Tadili narrates the biography of few female ascetics’ itineraries who received very little scholarly attention. He pinpoints to the story of Fatema al-Andaloucia from Ketama, a miraculous and pious woman who is believed to have said: “don’t deny the miracles of the pious. They are true”. Tashawwuf brackets the biography of about two hundred and seventy seven men, seven of whom are women. Three women are referred to as ‘majhulat’ )anonymous). This leads us to the apex of the book, which is not exclusively and equally dealing with biographies of saints, but it is weaving narratives that are intricately guiding towards the second part of the book entitled ‘the news of Abi al-Abbas as-Sabti. Later hagiographic literature has asserted the various mystic influence of female sanctity, albeit less visible than men. This manifests through the example of Sidi Mohammed Ben Jaafar Kettani’s Salwat al-anfas, an early known 19th Century book-length featuring biographies of a number of early Sufi men and women in Fès. The book details as well the lives of eminent religious scholars ‘ulama’, high-born ‘shurafa”, and pious people ‘salihin’ who were born, lived, or studied in Fès. Although the biographies do not differ from early hagiographic texts, Kettani introduces a complex body of women’s spirituality. εore importantly, the text contains a complex relationship between orthodox and informal piety or religion. While Tashawwuf ila rijal at-tasawwuf features a scant number of women, being labeled Majhulat (anonymous), as marginal agents in this hagiographic literature, a wide number of Sufi women feature the biographical entries of Kettani’s work. Unlike Tadili who offered instances of chaste male-female ascetics, excluding the possibility of marriage and maintaining celibacy as the only way leading to a full practice of spirituality, Kettani accounts for patterns of married female devotees, displaying them as “submissive” and obedient to their husbands. They are defined as Sufis or ascetics because they are predisposed as supporting agents in the fulfilment of men’s consistent religiosity. Kettani provides the example of an ordinary pious woman who is labelled ‘Saliha’ because she exhibited a vested interest in ministering to her husband in doing all his religious duties: warming water for the religious rituals, preparing the praying mat for him, and doing the chores and housework. (ibid: 220-221) Kettani labels her ‘saliha and moti’a’ )i.e.pious and obedient, respectively), explaining how she deserved the recognition of her husband. The spiritual experience and conformity of Sayyida Fatema is approved by her husband’s benediction ‘rrida’. The prevalence of wayfaring or the state of magnetic attraction to God: ‘jadhb’ is a very clear proof that there existed some Sufi people who were conventionally marginalized since their mental faculties impaired. The spiritual attraction is stigmatised in favour of a more orthodox piety, since the latter has oftentimes considered the ‘majdhub’ as an individual whose mind is deprived of judgment. Kettani depicts ‘majdhub’ men and women, through the rich first hand anthropological data, as catalysts of controversy and yet practitioners of piety. He illustrates the ‘jadhb’ with the example of the ‘majdhub’ Sidi Jeloul Ibn El Haj Aissaoui, who was attracted to God and who would let out cries saying: ‘Ahad, ahad’ )the one and only). )ibid: 226) As a matter of fact, the story of Majdhub Sharrif Moulay Ahmed Ben Ahmed Sqalli is an epitome of how the public was welcoming to the presence of majdhubin. It is reported that no woman used to cover herself in front of him because he was deprived of reason. (ibid: 225) There were also Majdhubin who abstained from any worldly life like Sidi Ahmed El Khobzi Sefiani Aa’jali. )ibid: 233-234) As for Kettani, the majdhub figure does not pose any problem in the public-private space since both spaces are more welcoming to the presence of ‘al-majdhub’. With the εajdhub’s presence, the violation of any ethical division of space is not possible since he/she is deprived of reason. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Additionally, through this hagiographic text, one can discern that there were some Sufi women who procured orthodox religious education. This postulation is furthermore illustrated by Sayyida Aicha Ben Ali Bounafai’, a woman beyond limits, Kettani said. She was exemplar in everything: her relationship with her husband, in-laws, and with God. She was active in doing her daily liturgy and dhikr, and was known for her love of attending the religious services, such as majliss Ali Abi Abbass Ibn Mbarek, Majliss al-Boukhari, and Majliss Abdellah Guessouss. (ibid: 299) Other majdhubat practiced the Sufi tradition through holding female congregations in order to practice liturgical functions like Lalla Jilania. (ibid: 360) Also, Amena bent Sidi Abderrahman Lfassi Lfihri had disciples and used to do the liturgical practices. (ibid: 280) However, Kettani renders an ambivalent construction of ‘jadhb’ as it creates new ethical ways of life for women who challenged societal norms. This is to question that Kettani’s majdhubat managed to blur the established gender boundaries, and negotiated restrictions placed upon them by patriarchy. Majdhubat are in fact capable of venturing into trespassing the sacred frontiers ‘hudud’. The Jadhb paradigm rewrites the latent conceptualization of revolutionary women and reveals the contradictory underpinnings of women’s spatial practices and subjectivity. This manifests through the figure of Safiyya Labbada, a devotee woman who outwardly manifested her jadhb. Kettani described her jadhb by saying: “after she was drawn to God by this spiritual state, she started wandering through the markets, speaking the language of the deranged. She would reveal parts of her body creating confusion. Safiyya cursed, spoke ribald language, revealed parts of her body, and cared about nothing”. )ibid: 10) Though δebbada’s language was offensive, but was convoluted and enigmatic to the extent that people wanted to decipher it, especially that most of what she predicted happened. (Kettani: 137) Through her mystic madness, Lebbada challenged societal conventions and expectations since patriarchy pervaded society at that time, and it was no surprise that mystic women bargained for a social leeway through their state of ‘jadhb’. Kettani says that “…]Safia[ would stand by mosques during Friday prayers and say: “Oh scholars, Oh oppressors”. )Kettani: 135-136) This as well reflects the constant tension between formal religious leadership, political authority, and gendered dichotomies bearing on ardent patriarchal thinking, in which majdhubat found themselves entrenched in a permanent state of strain. Significantly, jadhb is not only a challenge to the pre-existing gender-based expectations, but also to those who possess power like scholars. Jadhb can potentially be viewed as a rebellion against the patriarchal demands and the conventions of femininity. CONCLUSION Based on the concise analysis of Kettani’s and Tadili’s accounts, it can be argued that variation in both writers’ views on women’s sanctity becomes very acute when seen from the lenses of orthodox forms of expression. In the same line of reasoning, while it is a fact blatantly unquestionable that Sufi women in Salwat al-anfas and Tashawwuf ila rijal at-tasawwuf play less visible roles, hagiographic accounts, nonetheless, reveal most evidently the discrepancy between perceptions and views on women’s sanctity. This said, it can be argued that it is this issue particularly that is most likely to be conducive to alternative readings of Sufi women’s spirituality. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 WORKS CITED Boubrik, R. (2010). ‫برك النساء‬. Barakat An-nissae. )Women’s Blessing). Casablanca: εanshurat Afriquia as-sharq. Cornell, V. J. (1998). Realm of the saint: Power and authority in Moroccan Sufism. Austin: University of Texas Press. El Hati, Mohamed. (2011). ‫ قراء في نصو مناق ي‬:‫تجليا السلوك الصوفي عند المرأ بفاس‬. (Tajaliyyat as-soulouk as-soufi ‘inda almar’a bi fass: qira’a fi nousous manaqibia) )“εanifestations of Spiritual Discipline in Fessi Women :Reading in Hagiographic Accounts”. Oujda: Al-Jounaid Centre for Studies and Specialized Sufi Research. Retrieved 26 Sept. 2011 from: http://www.aljounaid.ma/Article.aspx?C=5881 Ephrat, D. )2002). “In Quest of an Ideal Type of Saint: Some Observations on the First Generation of εoroccan Awliya' Allah” in “Kitab al-tashawwuf”. Studia Islamica, No. )94), p.67-84. Retrieved on April 09 from : http://www.jstor.org/stable/1596212 Kettani, H. (2005). Salwat el anfas wa mûhadathat al-a’kias bi man ûqbira min al-ûlama wa assulaha bi Fas. H. El Kettani. Ed. Fès, volumes lithographiés, 1899, trois tomes. Strobel, M. (1979). Muslim women in Mombasa, 1890-1975. New Haven: Yale University Press. Toufiq, A. ed. (2014). At-Tadili, Yusuf ibn Yahya. ‫( الت وف إلى رجال التصوف و أخ ار أبي الع اس الس تي‬Attashawwuf ila rijal at-tasawwuf wa akhbar abi al-abbass as-sabti), (Insights into the Traditions Bearers of Sufism and the News of Abi al-Abbass As-Sabti).4th Edition. Rabat: Bouregreg Publications & Faculty of Arts and Humanities Publications. [A text in Arabic]. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 THE STORIES IN THE BEHIND BATIK CLOTHS Bani Sudardi Sebelas Maret University, Indonesia banisudardi@yahoo.co.id Batik has been developed in Java with various centers of batik as kraton batik, batik Pekalongan, Lasem Chinese batik, batik Dermayon (Indramayu), Cirebon batik, and so forth. The motif was also inspired narrative, both local and nonlocal stories. Piece of batik cloth has a story that a lot of stories. They have different story each other. The story comes from a variety of cultures that exist in Indonesia. For example, gurdan motif or eagle motif, for example, was inspired by the story Adiparwa sub Garudeya (Garuda story). Other motifs, such as the watu pecah (broken stone) it turns out inspired from the story of the Dutch colonial era sweatshop. At that time, the Java community forced for arranging the stones for road construction. Meanwhile, Pekalongan batik motif raises Hansen and Gratel and Snow White is a narrative of the West due to the influence of Dutch culture. People often refer to it by name Dutch batik (batik Belanda) because it was developed by the Dutch people living in coastal Pekalongan between the years 1840-1940. Hasen and Gratel story, Snow White, or Cinderella are Western stories. They are very popular in the world. The stories that fit into the motif In that respect, this study to reveal the narrative of local and nonlocal in the motif. This research is very important to increase the meaning of batik and give appreciation. Keywords: batik, stories, batik INTRODUCTION Batik is a type of painting on cloth. The tradition of batik was first developed in the court of Mataram at about the time the 17th century batik in limited use at the court. In the 19th century batik out of the palace and spread in Indonesia and Malaysia. People who produce and wear batik have changed. Currently, there are many kinds of batik known as court batik (Yogya, Solo, Cirebon) which inherited the tradition of classical batik, Chinese batik which produced by Chinese people in Lasem. Lasem known as the "little Chinese" because of the strong influence of Chinese culture. In addition, there is also a batik Indramayu called Dermayon and thrive in the city of Indramayu. In Madura Island, there is a batik center in Tanjung Bumi. The city of batik in Northern Coastal of Java is in Pekalongan. It is influenced by Chinese batik Dutch batik. There are also other batik in Indonesia, e.g. batik leak (Padang), Batik Bengkulu (Bengkulu), Batik Jambi (Jambi), Batik Papua (Papua). While in Malaysia also found Malaysian batik. Batik has changed into a contemporary batik that spread across major cities in Indonesia. Today we recognize the various types of batik in accordance with influences that occur in it as "batik saudagaran" (batik from merchant society ", batik petani (batik from farmer), batik India (batik influenced Indian culture), the Dutch batik (batik produced by Dutch people in Indonesia), batik Jawa Hokokai (batik influenced by Japanese culture in the time of Japanese colonialism), Bengkulu batik (batik developed in Bengkulu), and so fort (Doellah, 2002:i) Each sheet of batik cloth has its own story that painted in it. The stories related to the socio-cultural background of the people whose own it. This study examines the stories contained in a piece of batik cloth. Focusing is done in Javanese batik tradition in Surakarta. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 METHOD This research is descriptive qualitative. The target of this study is to describe the local and nonlocal narrative that is in the motifs and Javanese batik designs. Studies focused on aspects of the story in the motif. The research location is in Surakarta as the centers of Javanese batik that are are still active. The sample in this study adjusted for purposes of research that will seek the broadest possible description. Therefore, the sampling technique used was purposive sampling or sampling aims. Researchers also will use the internal sampling, the researchers determined based on the needs of the informant. To obtain these data, the data source of this research includes: a. The informant made up of artists, artisans, entrepreneurs, users, as well as competent figures with Javanese batik. b. Events and Behavior: events or behavior that becomes the source of data is the events or actions related to the creation, production, marketing, and use of Javanese batik cloth. c. Document: This document in the form of notes or publications about Javanese batik. Included in the data source document is of commentaries and writings in newspapers / magazines / and internet regarding Javanese batik and socio-cultural background of its creation. d. Artifact: Artifacts used in this study of Javanese batik cloth. DISCUSSION Batik is a fabric processing that has a motif of a variety of pictures. Batik is a technique to draw on the fabric using wax. The cloth used as clothing. Batik developed in Mataram era Kartasura. Within these motifs there are stories that reflect the social and cultural development. Research on the relationship narrative batik briefly been pioneered by Djoemena (1990) in his book entitled Batik: Its Mystery and Meaning in order to describe any types of batik in Indonesia. This study of which provides a description of the source of the inspiration briefly. This study will reveal the narrative in batik more broadly in relation to cultural studies. Djoemena research showed, that behind a piece of batik cloth there is a motif has to do with history. Batik Cirebon (old) gave voice to the motif of the development of Islam in West Java (Djoemena, 1990: 33). Gunung Jati forest chickens motif purportedly closely associated with the spread of Islam to the West Java conducted by Sunan Gunung Jati coming out of the forest like a forest chicken until he settled in Gunung Jati Cirebon (Djomena, 1990: 41). Parang Motif Parang motif is most important motif among the batik motifs. This motif specifically for the king and his family that can be called "forbidden motif". This motif illustrates the edge of the rocky beach. The stone was slanted and steep. This motif was created by Sultan Agung in the 17th century. This motif is a motif that tells about the ancestors king of Mataram is like Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 wandering in Turkish. In the story called the founder of the Mataram named Panembahan Senopati like imprisoned in Parangkusumo. Around Parangkusumo there are a lot of sharp rocks and mountains sloping. The word parang may be the short of Parangkusuma. Why parang motif so important? In the story called that Panembahan Senopati met with Ratu Kidul in Parangkusuma. Ratu Kidul is fairy magic. She would help Panembahan Senopati to establish the kingdom of Mataram. This is the important thing to note in the story of Java. Therefore, in addition to the king, who must wear parang motif is bedhaya dancers were seen as representatives of Ratu Kidu. Certain batik motif has a social function and symbolic meaning, for example sidomukti motif with social functions as clothing in the marriage. This was disclosed by Handayani (2002) which examined "Symbolic Meaning Sidomukti Patterns in Java in Surakarta Traditional Marriage". As a result of the demands of the times, the motif sidomukti experiencing growth. Sidomukti the beginning was the motif sidomukti plain. This motif creation Pakubuwono IV was expecting glory. This motif then developed who became Sidoasih, Sidomulyo, Sidoluhur, fried wirasat, sidodrajat, and Sidodadi (Handayani, 2002: 28). This development is nothing but the changing demands of the bride and groom are expected to not only mukti, but also noble, noble minds, noble, beautiful, degree, and fulfilled his ideals. Sidomukti motif was nothing but an affirmation of a collective ideal. When the Islamic Mataram kingdom was established in the 17th century, Panembahan Senapati as the founder of the Mataram dynasty wanted to devote the motif during that time developing in the kingdom Pajang. Panembahan Senopati in fostering the kingdom aspires to be noble. These ideals finally achieved the so-called "sido mukti" (so precious). Words were then brought into being the name of the motif called Sidomukti. This motif was later developed by Pakubuwana IV who later developed as a special motif for the marriage ceremony in the hope of glory bride who got married (Handayani, 2002: 18). Batik assessment in relation to the social structure of Javanese people had been reviewed by Sarwono (2004). The research looked at the development of batik is then developed and linked to socio-cultural conditions. In traditional Javanese society, batik motif that was related to the position of social status. For example, parang motif worn by the king and his family while kawung motif worn by courtiers. Thus, the motif contains a description of the structure of the Javanese community. Inside are the symbols of power to maintain the dignity and power in society supporters (Sarwono, 2004: 50). Parang motif closely associated with the struggle of the founder of the Mataram dynasty narrative is like searching a steep (slope / pereng). Research on parang motif in connection with the symbolism in the puppet was made by Sarwono (2005). Explained that every motif in the beginning is always made with symbolic meaning within the scope of the philosophy of Javanese. The emergence of batik parang motif was also not free from political and social atmosphere. This motif is inspired by the efforts of Panembahan Senopati in gaining inner strength do if the favor in Parangkusuma Beach. To commemorate this, then comes parang motif that this motif was originally reserved for the clothes of the royal family and is sacred. As appropriate, parang motif evolved into parang barong, parangrusak, parang kusuma, parang pamorparang barong, and so forth (Sarwono, 2005: 62). Furthermore, parang motif is then partly manifested in the art of puppet show as a description of the costume characters. Parang motif in the puppet adapted to the character figures Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 such wayang. For example, parang barong motif that has a white background is a symbol of lust goodness (mutmainah). This motif is used figures king who had honest nature so gods in favor of truth and goodness (Sarwono, 2005). This shows a shift from the mundane to the spiritual narrative. Values and social ideology Tuban batik motifs expressed by Uswatun (2005). In developing Tuban’s batik gedhog. The emergence of batik is strongly related to socio-cultural traditions Tuban in the kingdom confrontation with the center of the kingdom and wants to stand alone. Therefore, batik motif that emerges as a different batik motifs with a great tradition in the palace of Mataram. Tuban batik tradition raises gedhog. The term itself actually connotes to the wayang gedhog (a kind of puppet show) which is taking Panji stories. The emergence of this motif is in order to deviate the many motifs inspired puppet prototype. The tradition of batik gedhog then led characteristic curved lines to fill the room shading (Uswatun, 2005). Batik motif also voiced love or one's experience of someone in love. The motif is truntum meaningful motif "the grow of love". This motif appears in the time Pakubuwono III. The King was angry with the empress. She was very upset and went home to his parents. She made batik cloth with flower image headland spread like stars in the sky. One day King Pakubuwo visits his wife. He sees his work motif neat as swirling stars in the sky or a white cape flowers swirling in the background darkness. One day the king visits his wife and found the motif. The anger was loose and the love was growing. Therefore, the motif is then called truntum meant "the grow of love". Motif truntum a special motif for king (Pujiyanto, 2010: 36). This motif is often worn by a bride and groom in the hope of love can grow. Batik motifs fairly old age is a semen motif. The mean of semen is growing. This motif shaped as two wing, but the wings are in fact composed of strands of leaves growing. The eagle wing form motif called gurdan (meaning eagle) or eagle motif. This motif includes a special motif used king. This motif is used Pakubuwana II when moving Kartasura to Surakarta palace. εotif with eagle’s wings forms takes their cue from the story of Garuda in the story Adiparwa. Garuda is animal dutiful to his mother so that she struggled to free her from slavery. Garuda became the vehicle of Vishnu God. Although the court of Mataram are Muslim, but Hindu philosophy is still felt. The king is like an incarnation of Vishnu who protects the world. The motif is used as a symbol of the king of kings riding a garuda (eagle) If Surakarta takes shape in the eagle motif, the court took a unique form in Cirebon batik motif called paksi naga liman motif mean bird, dragon, and elephant. Paksi naga liman motif consists of three elements of the animal, namely dragons, birds and elephants. This motif describes Cirebon community consisting of various cultural resources . Actually, paksi naga liman is the name of carriage , the property of Kanoman Palace. In the past, this carriage is used by king of Kanoman to attend the great ceremony. In addition, the carriage was also used for a family wedding procession Sultan Kanoman. This is expected to be made in 1608. Since 1930, this carriage is not in use and stored in the museum Kanoman; while that is often used in the celebrations is a replica. The measuring is 3 meters long, 1.5 meters wide and 2.6 meters high and drawn by six horses. The board is divided into two parts, namely the top of the timber as the passenger seat and the bottom of the iron in the form of a series of four-wheel buggy. The top of a carriage-shaped fusion of three animals as the name suggests, the eagle (paksi), the dragon (naga), and the elephant (liman). The passenger seat entity elephant legs folded, tailed dragons, winged garuda, and the head of a mix between a dragon and an elephant. In the head, face sticking up trunked elephant holding a trident. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 In the batik motif, naga symbolizes the Chinese community. The followers of Islam come originally from China. Some Sunan, such as Sunan Kudus originally from mainland China. Liman symbolizing the god Indra. This is to show that the culture of Cirebon also constructed from elements of Hinduism. Birds symbolize Buroq, a mythological animal in Islam which is a symbol of Islam. Trident is a symbol of the unity of the Chinese elements, Hinduism, and Islam. The Dutch also has an influence on batik. It is the motif in Lasem town called watu pecah (broken stones). This motif reflecting the Javanese people who are forced take the stone along the road construction when the Dutch built the trans-Java road so many of the victims were killed caused to force to work. Meanwhile, in Pekalongan there are batik Hansel and Gratel and Snow White motif. This motif appears as demand Dutchwoman who is interested in taking batik and request made motif that contains the story of the West, namely Hansel and Gratel and Snow White. Some motifs adapted to the aesthetic sense of the Ducth as it appeared steamship and human motifs, fairy tale Little Red Riding Hood motif, and so on. When the Dutch in Java, they also interacted with local culture so that there are also motifs Dewi His (influence of China), the puppets and circus motif (Doellah, 2002: 170) CONCLUSION Batik has been developed in various places in Indonesia and surrounding areas. Batik has a meaning associated with the history of society. There are stories behind the motif. Parang motif of the Mataram palace related to the Mataram history and regarded as a sacred motif. Sidomukti motif is a picture of the ideal of the noble life.Some motifs derived from personal stories. Trunum motif is the motif about the growing of King's love..Cirebon motif called "paksi naga liman" is a picture of Cirebon's culture society, which has links with three sources of culture, namely China, India, and Islam. In conclusion, behind the beauty of batik motif there is a message that will be delivered related to the events that happened before. REFERENCES Doellah, H. Santosa. 2002. Batik: The Impact of Time and Enviroment. Surakarta: Danarhadi. Djoemena, Nian S. 1990. Ungkapan Sehelai Kain Batik: Its Mystery and Meaning. Jakarta: Djambatan Handayani, Sarah Rum. 2002. Makna Simbolis Pola Sidomukti dalam Perkawinan Adat Jawa di Surakarta. Surakarta: Fak. Sastra dan Seni Rupa, UNS. Hitchcock, Michael. 1991. Indonesia Textiles. Findon: Periplus Edition. Miles, Matthew dan A. Michael Huberman.1992. Analisis Data Kualitatif. Terjemahan. Jakarta: UI Press. Sarwono. 1997. “Filsafat Hidup Orang Jawa dan Simbolisme dalam εOtif Batik”. dalam Haluan Sastra Budaya No: 31 Th XVU Juli 1997. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Sarwono. 2004. “Pendekatan Hermeneutik Simbolisme εotif Parang”. dalam Etnografi: Jurnal Penelitian Budaya Etnik. No:04 Vol. 05 Juni 2004. Sarwono. 2005. “Pendekatan Hermeneutik Simbolisme εotif Parang”. dalam Etnografi: Jurnal Penelitian Budaya Etnik. No:04 Vol. 05 Juni 2004. Usawatun. 2005. “Dinamika Batik Gedhog Tuban”. Jakarta: Profil Wanita. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 THE STORY BEHIND THE FOOD ACCORDING JAVANESE TRADITION Murtini and Bani Sudardi 1 Dra. Murtini, M.S., Indonesian Literature Department, Sebelas Maret University (murtini14@rocketmail.com) 2 Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum, Cultural Studies Department, Sebelas Maret University (banisudardi@yahoo.co.id). ABSTRACT Every nation has its own procedures for acquiring, processing, presenting, and storing food. The ordinance also sometimes derived from mythology or tradition that is hundreds of years believed. The Javanese have their own traditions about the origin of the food, how to prepare, how to save, and how to obtain it. The tradition of developing hereditary so appear myths about food. This study is about the myth of the food in the Javanese tradition It is according to agricultural tradition that developed around Surakarta. The story comes from the story of Jaka Tarub which is ancestor of Javanese kings. However, the tradition doing rice fields and planting rice as well as making the food is a tradition that has been listed on the initial story of the Javanese. The story is the story of India Ajisaka who had came from India and saw a girl who was processing the rice. Javanese tradition also recognize a wide variety of processed foods and forms of interaction with foreign cultures. The tradition developed in Java folklore. Apem (bread from rice) believed to come from Arabic. Food is brought by Ki Ageng Cakrajaya of Jatinom after he was on a pilgrimage from Makkah. While the food selad (soup from vegetables and fried potato) believed to be the Dutch cultural influence that once ruled in Java. The myth of Dewi Sri and Sadana or the story about Wiji Widayat is the story about the origin Javanese food. It has manifestated in Javanese daily life and the way to planting rice. There are many ceremony and ritual related to this myth so we can call it as the story of the origin Javanese food. Key Words: Javanese, tradition, food INTRODUCTION Food is samething important in our life. Although, we life not for food (eat), but we eat for life. So every nation has its own procedures for acquiring, processing, presenting, and storing food. The ordinance also sometimes derived from mythology or tradition that is hundreds of years believed. The Javanese have their own traditions about the origin of the food, how to prepare, how to save, and how to obtain it. The tradition of developing hereditary so appear myths about food. The myth of Dewi Sri and Sadana is the important myth about the origin food according Javanese people, especially in agricultural people. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 This study is about the myth of the food in the Javanese tradition It is according to agricultural tradition that developed around Surakarta. The story comes from the story of Jaka Tarub which is ancestor of Javanese kings. However, the tradition doing rice fields and planting rice as well as making the food is a tradition that has been listed on the initial story of the Javanese. The story is the story of India Ajisaka who had came from India and saw a girl who was processing the rice. Javanese tradition also recognize a wide variety of processed foods and forms of interaction with foreign cultures. The tradition developed in Java folklore. Apem (bread from rice) believed to come from Arabic. Apem was brought by Ki Ageng Cakrajaya of Jatinom after he was on a pilgrimage from Makkah. While the food selad (soup from vegetables and fried potato) believed to be the Dutch cultural influence that once ruled in Java. Serabi (bread from rice) is a kind of apem that influenced by Chinese tradition. It was told that the pioneer was a Chines couple namely Hoo Geng Hok and Tan Giok Lan who made apem in 1923. Initially, the couple was asked by a neighbor to make a apem. Many people liked the the version of the apem. . This effort was then forwarded by her children and grandchildren. This article discusses the origin of the food in Javanese tradition. 2. METHOD This study is a qualitative research. This research tries to study a problem and laid out in a universe so structured as universality with its own peculiarities (Vredenbregt, 1985). The object of study is related to food in Javanese culture. This study in the realm of the study of folklore (Abrams, 1981: 66). Javanese culture in question is of Javanese culture around Surakarta. The research location is in Surakarta and surrounding areas is often called ex Karisidenan Surakarta. Which is the source of data is the informant, events, and written sources. Interviews were conducted with informal interviews (depth interview) to the other informants that have been mentioned above. To maintain the validity of the data, then the interview will be accompanied by a member check (Nasution, 1992: 117). In the analysis of these data, the data collected can be achieved directed to a description of categorical data. This description chronological nets a phenomenon that can be imaged causal processes that make up the network (Miles and Huberman, 1993: 243). 3. DISCUSSION Javanese people put food in a symbolic system. For example, lontong or foods with oval shape is usually served with a variety of other foods, such as salad, soup, meatballs and so forth. Soft and tender texture makes it an alternative to rice. This meal is called "lontong" that has meaning “alane kothong” "the bad has gone away". Other foods that are present at the celebration of Idul Fitri is kupat. The word is an abbreviation of "ngaku lepat", which means admit the wrong. This shows that the food is not just chitterlings. The philosophy is closely related to the month of Ramadan. In the way that we already know, that Ramadan is a holy month in which Muslims opened the door to forgive and make for worship and reward many times over compared to other months. Until finally returned the sacred or fitrah (no wrong). Two mythology associated with food also mentioned about food processing. The myth is about Aji Saka. In the story of Aji Saka also mentioned that the locals also cultivate rice pounded way first. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Stories about Joko Tarub also relates to the history of rice. It was told that in the Joko Tarub era, rice were big, but because of an error Joko Tarub that breaking taboos of his wife, then the rice into small and be ground to cultivate. In addition to the Java native food, many types of food mentioned from outside Java. Apem srabi, and soup are food from outside then modified by Javanese. A mix of savory dishes and soup (Europe) in Java called timlo solo. The food is very popular with ingredients and spices tradition, but the presentation is similar soup. It shows that the type of verbal and not verbal folklore has come together and influence each other (Dananjaja, 1986) Javanese people already familiar with the technology of food processing, especially planting rice called pranatamangsa (the rule of the season). Pranatamangsa, is still widely used in rural peasantry. They know the moment for planting coconut, banana, rice seed spread, cutting bamboo, and so on. They believe that the plant, cultivate, and take rice, trees, and others will be better when taken according to the season . Regarding rice, the Javanese have a special named Dewi Dewi Sri. Dewi Sri Javanese believed to be the god of rice. He is the bearer of a blessing in the field of agriculture. Therefore, at the beginning of the rice planting and harvesting rice Javanese always correlated to Dewi Sri. How, with the ritual acted upon so that crops produced more helpful. Tradition is always glorify Dewi Sri is ritual of harvesting rice called wiwit. Wiwit tradition there is also a mention methuk Dewi Sri or ceremony methik (Suyami, 2001: 3). Generally, after a successful harvest of rice, then put in a barn in each house. In fact, to keep the drought (shortage of rice), Javanese also held a village barn. Village barn is a kind of social gathering that will be opened during a famine. After all the people completed the harvest of rice, collectively perform salvation in the form of a clean village (bersih desa) . The play puppet is usually played story of Sri Mulih at noon. Clean village is also accompanied by a feast together in the village leaders. This is an effort worship the Goddess Sri. The form of offerings is two ball rice (golong) for Dewi Sri and her Brother Sadana. Dewi Sri is reincarnation of Visnu’s wife and Sadana is Visnu so Sri and Sadana are not a brother and siter, but a cople of deva. The ritual associated to the existence of Sri and Sadana as the table below. The Name of Ceremony Activitie Meaning Tedhun (down to the field) Planting rice. The offer is Associated with the Dewi Sri pasta from rice (bubur). come to the field of rice. Metengi (Pregnance ) Give rice plant the soup from Associated with the pregnace chili and fruit (rujak). of Dewi Sri who need some chillied and sour. Wiwit (The firt harvest) Harvet the rice. For the first Associated with to bring home time the offer are rice and side Dewi Sri. dish (chicken and the other). Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Sri Mulih/ Merti Desa (Sri Stored the rice and make The happy time. The planting come home or clean the anniversary by puppet show and harvesting rice succes and village) with the story Sri Mulih. Dewi Sri in their house. As a symbol of Dewi Sri, the rice storage installed in front of the statue that is Loroblonyo, a symbol Dewi Sri and her husband Vishnu. Therefore Loroblonyo statue believed to be the caretaker of rice. Dewi Sri is on the left and on the right Sadana. This is a picture of Dewi Sri as a symbol of femininity, always keep in senthong kiwa (left chamber) where the crops. Sadana as guards also senthong tengen (right chamber) where agriculture weapons. Manifestations of sculpture Loroblonyo is when the Javanese carry out livelihood or to be bride (manten) , always symbolized this small statue. This is reprpesentasi relations between the two bride to be prosperous like Dewi Sri and Sadana. Therefore Javanese initially worked as an agrarian society, the statue Loroblonyo regarded as being the god of agriculture and a symbol of family happiness. The mythology of Dewi Sri is a mythology that under the influence of India involving Shiva or Guru. In the story of Dewi Sri, we are told that she is the reincarnation of Wiji Widayat. Wiji Widayat will be granted to people in the world. But Wiji Widayat didn’t obey Batara Guru. It drove itself into marcapada. As a result, Wiji Widayat must accept god curse of Batara Guru. Suddenly revelation Wiji Widayat slid down to the bottom of the sea and into the stomach Nagaraja. Of course this makes Nagaraja stomach feel sick and not feeling well. He was immediately brought before Batara Guru. Finally stomach held by Batara Guru. Wiji Widayat go out and tobe two creatures. The creature that is later renamed Sri and Sadana. Only Sadana and Sri wants to get married after a large, thus making Batara Guru angry. Because, both considered to be cousins. Sri and Sadana had died because of the curse of Batara Guru, and was ordered to be dumped into the woods. Two god named Wangkas and Wangkeng are sent to throw the bodies of Sri and Sadana, turned out to be very curious. Both had opened the bodies that exist in the coffin. Along the same Sadana corpse missing from the crate. Because it was suddenly out of the crate out walang rice pest (walang sangit). Walang sangit is what will become the enemy of rice farmers. For that casket be closed and immediately taken to the forest Krendawahana for burial. At the time of goddess Sri buried, no strange signs. Hence to the gods were just leave a message to the rural farmers in order to maintain the cemetery. Farmers often emberikan-food-grain in the cemetery after the rice harvest. Farmers in the village was getting rich thanks to the rice harvest. Since then, the idol of goddess Sri become statue in rice farmers. However, one day the rice is also attacked by pests intangible walang rice pest. Apparently, walang rice pest that comes from the spirit Raden Sadana, which is none other than as incarnation of the god Vishnu. So, walang rice pest actually disrupt rice in an effort to mystical meeting between the goddess Sri Vishnu ,. Both can be fused after a suksma odyssey. Furthermore, to commemorate the story, the end of each harvest clean village with a puppet show took the play Sri Mulih. This play is a mystical and sacred gathering process between Sri and Sadana. That's why farmers are always trying organizes clean Javanese village after the rice harvest. Clean village as a tradition of commemorating the rice god they know mystically. Because of this tradition has been passed down through generations, the net cost was borne Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 collectively village. If farmers do not run Java village purification ritual generally fear that there are things that are detrimental to agriculture. It also does community Tengger (Sutarto, 1998) CONCLUSSION Java community is a growing community. Food is a form of culture that reflects Javanese culture. Javanese have a variety of food forms, but rice seems to be a native of Indonesian food so that the story of rice in the form of Goddess Sri myth has colored Javanese daily life in the form of stories, ceremonies, rituals, and the philosophy that is reflected from foods such as rice. In Javanese tradition also found other forms of food due to the influence of foreign cultures, it also shows that the Javanese culture outside influence can still be accepted along with their native culture. REFERENCE Abrams, M.H., (1991). A Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston. Danandjaja, James. (1986). Folklor Indonesia: Ilmu Gosip, Dongeng, dan lain-lain. Jakarta: Grafitipers Miles, Matthew B. dan Huberman, A. Michael. (1992). Qualitative Data Analysis (Analisis Data Kualitatif) Translate Tjetjep Rohendi Rohidi. Jakarta: UI-Press Nasution. 1992. Metode Penelitian Naturalistik Kualitatif. Bandung: Tarsito. “Sejarah Singkat Serabi Notosuman” )http://indonesiancuisine99.blogspot.co.id/2012/01/sejarahsingkat-serabi-notosuman-solo.html) Sutarto, Ayu. )1998). “Kebudayaan Orang Tengger”. εakalah dalam Semiloka Tradisi δisan, Bogor, 18 Juni 1998. Sutopo, Heribertus. (1988). Pengantar Penelitian Kualitatif : Dasar-dasar Teoretis dan Praktis. Surakarta: Pusat Penelitian Universitas Sebelas Maret. Suwardi. (2000). Folklor Jawa. Yogyakarta: Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta. Suyamni. (2001). Serat Cariyos Dewi Sri dalam Perbandingan. Yogyakarta: Kepel Press. Vredenbregt, J. (1985). Pengantar Metodologi untuk Ilmu-ilmu Empiris. Jakarta: P.T. Gramedia. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Flight Attendants’ Strike on Taiwan’s New Labor Law: A Review of the 2016 China Airline’s Strike Chey-Nan Hsieh Chinese Culture Univ., Taiwan Abstract Taiwan’s China Airline cancelled 67 flights on June 24, 2016 due to the strike instituted by its flight attendants. The strike and its aftermath labor dispute was an expensive test to the new labor law enforced after May 1, 2011. It has proved that dissenting employees of a particular union is free to incorporate a new union of their own and compete with their original enterprise union. A quasi-pluralism industrial relations system has been established. With the high turn-out rate and voting rate, the newly incorporated union established with the legitimacy and justifiability called the strike. In this event, the government stood on neutral position and encouraged good faith collective bargaining of the parties which disappoint the business but made the strike possible. The strike ended in less than 24 hours bringing many aftermath labor disputes because there wasn’t an exclusive representation system in the law. In order to enhance a cooperative industrial relations system, the exclusive representation and duty of fair representation should be included into the labor law. Keywords: Strike, Union, Exclusive Representation, Collective Bargaining, Labor Dispute Introduction For the first time, China Airline )“CAδ”) cancelled 67 flights on June 24, 2016 due to the strike instituted by its flight attendants. Its flight attendants carried placards and shouted slogans from the midnight of the day. The strike caused a damage of more than a billion NT dollars and the possible claims from the passengers impacted. Since May 1, 2011, the commencement of implementing new labor law covering all the amendments during 1999 and 2011 to the Taiwan’s Trade Union law )“TUδ”), Taiwan’s Collective Agreement δaw )“TCAδ”) and the δaw for Settlement of Labor Dispute )“δSδD”),20 quasi-plural unionism has been adopted and multiple unions have been allowed to be incorporated to organize the employees of same company and bargain with their employer though the law still sets limitations. The employees of a company may only incorporate a 20 Hou-Cheng Wang(2010). Jian Gou Gong Hwei Xin Fa Zhan: Gong Hwei Fa Xiou Zhong Dian (Establish the New Development of the Unions: The Key Points of the Amendments to the Labor Union Law) 22 Tai Wan Lau Gun Ji Kan (Taiwan Labor Quarterly) 48-49(2010). Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 company-wide enterprise union to represent the whole employees. The change brings concerns about more labor disputes and labor-labor conflicts. Before the strike, many employees who were originally members of the China Airline Enterprise Union )“CAEU”) resigned and incorporated a new union, Taoyuan Flight Attendants’ Craft Union)“TFACU”), to represent themselves.21 The CAEU had disputes with TFACU because CAEU lose its members. It reveals the problem of labor-labor friction that has never happened in the past. TFACU’s strike under the said context obviously served as a test not only to CAδ but also to the new revisions of labor law implemented in 2011. The quasi-plural unionism seemed to bring more disputes for CAL that forced it to bargain with more than one union. The happening of labor-labor friction is concerned by this paper to be an inadequate situation because the new revisions are designed to promote industrial peace as their main goal. Though labor laws established for protecting industrial democracy and industrial peace may vary from country to country but they are more or less established to protect workers’ labor rights and simultaneously promote industrial peace. This strike gives a question of whether the revisions enhance the power of organized labor on the one side and simultaneously maintain cooperative industrial relations on the other. Labor law has to assure the equity as well as autonomy in labor-management bargaining and provide with adequate dispute resolution mechanism for the parties. New revisions explicitly aimed at promoting them by providing in the article 6 of TCAL and the article 2 and 54 of the δSδD the obligations to maintain “good faith” and “autonomy” in collective bargaining and resolution of labor dispute. The poor interactions between labor and management prior to the strike evidencing the industrial relations in collective bargaining has been affected due to the representation problem impacted by the quasi-plural unionism. How to have a better system for determining the jurisdiction of bargaining representation among competing unions with a much proper mechanism is a big issue for Taiwan’s future labor law. This paper adopts a legal analysis approach to explore the merits and downsides of the new system provided by the new labor law which has been tested by the strike and learn from American labor law that may be applied to seal the loopholes. The Revisions Switched the Practice of Unionization and Bargaining Representation Though the workers’ right to organize, bargain and act collectively is not explicitly written in the Constitution, through the Constitutional Court’s interpretation, these rights are fundamental rights.22 Prior to εay 1, 2011, the union’s organizational jurisdiction was limited to one company one union.23 Enterprise unions were not chosen at the will of employees but employees were forced to participate enterprise unions. What CAL has Offered may not be the Worst in the Industry The strike by no means stand on the ground that CAL was the worst employer in the air carrier industry. Actually, CAL is the only organized company in the industry. For instance, its biggest 21 Since CAEU is an enterprise union, the members of the union cove ring ground staff, pilots, maintenance workers, flight attendants and other China Airlines employees. TFACU is an independent craft union covering only flight attendants working in the area of Taoyuan city. 22 Constitutional Court’s interpretation no 373 dated Feb. 24, 1995. 23 Yueh-Chin Hwang. Lao Dong Fa Xin Lun (New Theory Labor Law) Taipei: Han-Lu Book Publishing (2000). Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 competitor, Eva Airline is suspected to adopt union free policy and no union has ever tried to organize its employees before the strike.24 Actually, Taiwan has high union organizing rate but it by no means represents the strength of labor in Taiwan.25 Eighty to ninety percent of all the trade unions are small craft unions and some of them are paper unions. The reason why Taiwan has so many small craft unions is because the government, through craft unions, grants subsidy by paying the fees of labor and health insurances for each craft union’ members.26 As a result, most small craft unions are mainly organizing self-employees rather hired employees. They are not necessarily representing their members for collective bargaining because for many craft unions’ members it is hard to locate their employers (opposite parties) for collective bargaining. Other than craft unions, very few organized workers are members of industry-level industrial unions (cross-enterprise unions) but they are relatively stronger and more collective agreements on that level have ever been concluded. As to enterprise-level enterprise unions, they are not necessarily successful in terms of collective bargaining.27 For enterprise unions, because most Taiwan’s companies are small and medium companies, their employees are less likely to get organized and conduct collective bargaining. That is why the organization rate of enterprise unions is very low and fewer collective agreements have ever been concluded than those of outside industrial unions and craft unions. That is why there are only 131 collective agreements concluded even though there are currently 914 enterprise unions in Taiwan. However, those companies with enterprise unions existing in house like CAL, would be considered to be well established companies. Those unions engaging in bargaining for the collective agreements to build better labor conditions at large companies can be regarded as strong unions. After the revisions, the powers of enterprise unions have been diluted. In this strike case, CAδ’s flight attendants took the advantage of the revisions to incorporate TFACU outside the company. Quasi-plural unionism Creates the Foundation of the Strike The limitation on multiple unions prohibiting competing enterprise unions at enterprise level create the room for TFACU to be incorporated outside CAδ and organize CAδ’s flight attendants. Impacts Brought by Quasi-plural Unionism Due to the limitation, multiple unions within CAL do not enjoy same organizational jurisdiction because CAEU is the company-wide enterprise union. No other company-wide enterprise unions shall be existed in CAδ. As to CAδ’s branch offices or plants, there are plant-wide enterprise unions parallel to CAEU within the plant. Both CAEU and the plant-wide enterprise union shall represent the employees of the plant for collective bargaining but only CAEU represent 24 In Eva Airline, no union found in the company. After the CAL strike, 15,000 flight attendants join TFACU. As of the April of 2016, there are 5,437 unions covering 3,344,730 members. More than 35 percent of workers are organized. Within the total of unions, there are 4,111 craft unions but only 914 enterprise unions and 159 industrial unions (cross-enterprise unions). Source: Ministry of Labor, retrieved on July 15, 2016. from its website http://statdb.mol.gov.tw/statis/jspProxy.aspx?sys=210&kind=21&type=1&funid=q050112&rdm=beerWNAo. 26 See article 8 of the Statute for Labor Insurance. 27 As of the April of 2016, there are 666 collective agreements have been concluded and in force. For 4,111 craft unions, there are only 192 collective agreements concluded and in force. For 159 industrial unions, there are 342 collective agreements concluded and in force. For 914 enterprise unions, there are only 131 collective agreements concluded and in force. 25 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 company-wide employees. CAEU’s dominant’s status and failure in fair representation becomes the foundation to allow TFACU, an outside craft union, compete with it for bargaining representation and leadership in instituting industrial actions. According to article 6 of the TCAL cross-enterprise craft union with members of different companies’ employees is allowed to compete with the in-house enterprise union in collective bargaining representation if the half of the company’s employees are the members of the cross-enterprise union.28 The company-wide enterprise union is not the only union that can represent the employees of whole company at enterprise level for collective bargaining. Therefore, any cross-enterprise/industry-level industrial union enjoys the right to organize the employees of the whole company by pushing fifty percent of the company’s employees be organized as the members of its union. As to craft employees of a company, any cross-enterprise/industry-level craft union shall represent the specific craft’s employees of a company if half of the same craft’s employees of the company are members of the cross-enterprise/industry-level craft union. It explains the reason why CAδ’s flight attendants incorporated TFACU, a cross-enterprise union in the city of Taoyuan, to compete with CAEU. CAEU’s Poor Performance in Representation Strike is still somewhat unusual in Taiwan. For the companies of airline industry, nearly any kind of industrial action have never happened. Many labor-management problems are expected to be solved through the labor-management consultation process. For the well-established unions, the bargaining structure and the role they play in the system are more or less limited within enterprise-level. A failure of CAEU’s fair representation builds distrust that pushes the struggle due to flight attendants’ preference to TFACU. Before the strike, TEACU, the de jure company branch of industry-level craft union, carried out bargaining with CAL. The de jure industry-level collective bargaining was highly connected to enterprise-level collective bargaining as TFACU represent only CAδ’s flight attendants. That is why the institution of strike remained at the enterprise level. As a result, the better terms and conditions was not reached through the enterprise-level collective bargaining but through the bargaining between CAL and TEACU, a de jure cross-enterprise craft union but a de facto enterprise-level craft union. TEACU instituted the strike only for the flight attendants of CAL. Problem Found after the Strike A problem out of this quasi-plural unionism bargaining representation system has been found in the aftermath of the strike. This bargaining representation system may not guarantee the increase of bargaining power for unions but create a confusion for employer. An employer may have to bargain with several unions for the same group of employees. Furthermore, labor-management standoff may escalate because frog-leaping bargaining strategy may be adopted by some unions qualified to represent employees. It would bring chaos to the industrial relations of a particular company. All About Rest: Dispute over Working Hours Agreement Under 84-1 Labor Standards Law )“δSδ”) 28 The article 6 of the TCAL does not require enterprise union to be a majority union in its company. However, according to the same article, for cross-enterprise industrial union and craft unions, they are qualified to serve as bargaining representative only if they enjoy majority union status. So long as a majority union status has been established, the union shall serve as the representative of employees of the company for collective bargaining. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The relationship between flight attendants as a group and CAL has been difficult for many years. In 2012, the sudden death of a cabin manager lead to the questioning over harsh assignments under CAL working hour arrangements.29 The harsh assignment, for instance, requiring a duty starting from early morning for shorter distance flights to and from of twice duty but does not allow flight attendants to have enough resting period which has been protected under the Articles 30, 32, 36, 37 and 49 of LSL. In May 30, 2016, some day prior to the strike, the members of TEACU instituted a demonstration down in the Taipei street to protest against long working hours as well as harsh assignments. Dispute on CAδ’s Pushing to Sign Working Hour Agreement under the Article 84-1 of LSL Article 84-1 of LSL provides that after the approval and public announcement of the Central Competent Authority, a certain types of workers may arrange their own working hours, regular days off, national holidays and female workers' night work through agreements with their employers. These agreements shall be submitted to the local competent authorities for approval and record keeping. With the agreement signed, the employees shall not be subject to the protection directly imposed by Articles 30, 32, 36, 37 and 49 of LSL. However, the workers permitted to sign the agreement only include, (a) supervisory, administrative workers, and professional workers with designated responsibility, (b) monitoring or intermittent jobs, and (c) other types of job in special nature.30 Any employee agreed to be subject to the agreement under Article 84-1 shall not suffer a less favoured Working Hour Conditions according to Constitutional Court. The special working hour agreement made under Article 84-1 of LSL shall not violate the minimum standards provided by LSL and shall not be detrimental to the health and well-being of the workers according to the constitutional court. The court delivered no. 494 decision dated Nov. 18, 1999 that LSL was enacted to protect worker's rights of existence and work as well as to promote the workers’ livelihood. Although a business entity may separately enter into agreement with the workers, the conditions agreed to should in no event provide less than the minimum standards set by the LSL. Workers’ Distrust Against Employers δeads to the Problem As the court stated, article 84-1 itself doesn’t have anything wrong but many employers’ practices may not be fair for their employees. Many workers complained the 84-1 to be slave labor provision which lead to overworking of workers.31 Labor inspection authority had issued a number of fines on CAδ. The cumulative amount was up to NT$10,000,000 for CAδ’s non1 30 29 Tang Shih “Why flight attendants’ go on strike? A Cabin εanager’s Death of Overwork, CAδ ask Employee Wash Hands εore” Taiwan People News, June 24, 2016. Article 50-1 of Enforcement Rules of the Labor Standards Law further detailing the definition of what are supervisory workers, administrative workers, professional workers with designated responsibility, monitoring and intermittent workers referred to in the subparagraphs 1 and 2 of paragraph 1 of Article 84-1. Supervisory workers and administrative workers mean those who are hired by an employer to be responsible for the operation and management of business and with the power to decide the hiring, discharge, or working conditions of the workers in general. Professional worker with designated responsibility means one who utilizes his/her professional knowledge or skills to complete a task and is responsible for its success or failure. Monitoring work means chiefly to monitor work in certain work place. Intermittence work means the work is intermittence in nature. 31 Kaohsiu g Federatio of I dustrial U io , Arti le 4-1 of L“L: A “la e La or Pro isio ? Ku-Lau Net, Feb.15, 2011. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 compliance of employees’ protected right regarding working hours. CAδ ignored the charges and fines because the charged cost has been far less than the labor cost that CAL should pay to employees. The CAδ’s non-compliances produces distrust against CAδ’s proposed working hours’ term for signing 84-1 agreement.32 In fact, the number of working hours proposed by CAL in May of 2016 for 84-1 agreement is 46 hours longer than the hours permitted by LSL for regular type of work in place for flight attendants. Accordingly, the total monthly working hours proposed may be up to 220 hours.33 Most CAL flight attendants refused to sign the written agreement for the 84-1 working hours’ term and protested by demonstration on the May 30, 2016.34 Several CAδ’s mistakes made the strike possible: The δast Straw Broke CAδ’s δabor εanagement Relationship’s Back CAδ’s non-listening to the grievances related to working hours was the trigger of the strike. Many grievances regarding regulated working hours have been repeatedly reported through the CAEU. Create an Interest Dispute Meeting the Requirement for a Legal Strike LSLD provides that only for interest dispute a strike shall be instituted. Ignoring the voices of the flight attendants through protest, CAL continuously denied the request to bargain in good faith with TEACU for the terms of ceasing undue assignment and adjusting working hour. Therefore, between the parties there is an interest dispute arising from the bargaining for changing employees’ working hours. CAδ’s Chief Executive Officer )“CEO”) Having A Wrong Idea That It Is a City δabor Authority’s εust-Do Action Regarding Government-discretional Arbitration The late president of CAδ, fired during the strike, didn’t understand anything about the labor law by complaining the labor authority’s not incurring government-discretional arbitration.35 He thought the labor agency of Taoyuan was to be blamed for the happening of the strike because they didn’t incur the arbitration to bar the strike. It is true that the article 8 of δSδD provides a prohibition of any strike during the procedures of mediation, arbitration or unfair labor practices. If there is any arbitration procedure incurred, no strike can be instituted. However, the paragraph 1, article 25 of LSLD provides that after the mediation is not successfully concluded both parties jointly shall request for arbitration. Therefore, a labor arbitration shall only be incurred jointly by CAL and TFACU but that was not conceivably possible. The other type of labor arbitration shall be incurred is simply up to government’s discretion. According to the paragraph 4 of the same article, absent of the joint request of both parties for arbitration, if the labor authority regards that 1.1 Yu-Tseng Lai. “Complain CAδ for the fines of CAδ’s non-compliance up to NT$ 10,000,000: Wen-Chien Tsan )City εayor of Taoyuan) Supports the Industrial Action of Flight Attendants.” 32 Ettoday, June 23, 2016. 2 33 Chiu-Yuen Lu. “CAδ’s Slavery Provisions: The number of Working Hours under New Contract is 46 hours longer than the hours permitted by δSδ, overtime is not calculated!” Buzz Orange, June 3, 2016. 34 35 I-Gin Huang. Refuse to “ig “la e La or Co tra t u der Arti le 4-1 of L“L: Thousa ds of CAL Flight Atte da ts’ Protest y De o stratio a d Threat to Go o “trike Apple Daily, June 1, 2016. Yang, Tung-Shiuan. Ji Ti Lao Dong Fa (Collective Labor Law) Taipei: Wu-Nan Book Publishing (2007). Yang calls the type of arbitration to be compulsory arbitration but this paper would like to call it state-discretional arbitration. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 the interest dispute is of great impact on livelihood and interests of the general public, it shall by its discretion submit the dispute to arbitration. In the past, because the labor authorities of city governments were afraid of the pressure from the general public or hurting business’ interest groups, an invisible quasi-business-government alliance tends to be there to deter the unions by threating that the government-discretional arbitration may be incurred. Even though there wasn’t any government-discretional labor arbitration kept on the record it was an effective way to bar a legal strike. The strike goers of this strike firmly holding the placards of “we want strike, no arbitration” to request the government and employer not to play the game. That was why Taoyuan city mayor, Cheng Wen-Tsan, after talked with the CAδ’s CEO and union leaders reverted back to the law’s original face by denying the incurring of the arbitration even though CAL requested it.36 He let the parties determine how they conduct collective bargaining and resolute their dispute even though the voices complaining the possible strike from general pubic was there.37The barrier deters a strike has been removed. CAδ wasn’t in Good use of Replacement Workers During the strike, more than 1,000 flight attendants were still the members of CAEU not affected by the TFACU’s strike, there wasn’t any sense to cease all 67 flights of June 24. Furthermore, since the labor dispute has been there for a while, it was by no means a big problem to recruit enough replacement workers. Current Quasi-plural Unionism’s εerits for Union Organization and Downsides for Collective Bargaining Merits for Union Organization In terms of incorporating new union and organizing union members, the revisions keep the costs lower and make it easier to start collective actions in favor of employees. Members are Easier to be Organized on Their Community of Interest According to the US experience, to be organized together for the purposes of collective bargaining, employees’ community of interest shall include: “)1) bargaining history in the industry as well as with respect to the parties; (2) similarity of duties, skills, interests, and working conditions of the employees; (3) organizational structure of the company; and (4) the desires of the employees. Nowadays, there are diverse kind of community of interest for employees to get unionized. Under new labor law, subset groups of employees are free to organize employees with community of interest.38 Unions are Easier to Solicit In the past, CAEU controlled the majority of members because it was the exclusive representative of all employees in all the relevant branches or with all different skills. The CAEU’s officials elected by all the employees of the company that complicate the union politics of representation. For the flight attendants, before the revisions they had no choice but accepted Yu-Hui Chiu. “Cheng Wen-Tsan: The Position is not Changed-No Compulsory Arbitration Incurred” United Daily June 21, 2016. 37 Yu-Tseng Lai. ”CAδ Strike: Pan-Blue Law-makers Complained the Denial of Referring to Arbitration by Cheng Wen-Tsan is the Main Cause/ Taoyuan: It is an Act According to δaw” Ettoday June 24, 2016. 38 Patrick Hardin ed. The Developing Labor Law : The Board, The Courts, and The National Labor Relations Act. Washington : BNA(2002). 36 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 the CAEU’s representation though they weren’t satisfied with the CAEU’s representation. Current multiple union system benefits union to convince employees to join its union based on the union’s performance for its members instead of merely giving lip-service promises. It becomes easier to persuade workers to join the union. For the flight attendants, this new system is one of the contributory factors that make the strike possible and their voices heard. Rival Unions Enjoy Equal Treatment The new labor law prohibits employer’s discrimination on the basis of union affiliation. An employer is required to remain neutral as to its employee’s choice of competing labor union.39 Employer is prohibited to engage in the conduct supporting a preferred labor union over the other. From the US experience, US Supreme Court found, in Garment Workers v. Labor Board, the employer violated Section 8)a))2) of National δabor Relations Act )“NδRA”) by recognizing a minority union as the exclusive labor union even though the employer believed in good faith that the union enjoyed majority support.40 The ruling is that it is a fait accompli depriving the majority of the employees of their right to choose their own representative. The decisions of Taiwanese Unfair Labor Practice Commission have ruled the same as its American counterpart. A principle established by the Commission requiring employer to treat competing unions impartially. In Lao-Cal-Zi (100) no. 18 decision, the Commission explicitly stated that the employer ought to maintain impartial position in treating the competing unions.41 In the case, the complainant complained that the employer’s action in removal of the linkage between the employer’s website and its union’s website but didn’t delink the linkage between its website and other unions’ websites. The Commission reiterated that when two or more unions existed in an enterprise, the employer ought to honor the existence of multiple unions, maintain impartial and not to favor a union over the others. The Commission upheld the claim of the complainant and ordered the employer to link the company’s front page to the website of the complainant’s union. Much Easier to Unite the Will of Members to Pass Through the Barriers Set to Bar Strike and to Place Employer in Dispute According to the new labor law, both CAEU and TFACU are qualified to represent the CAL flight attendants for collective bargaining. However, the officers of CAEU were complained to serve as CAδ’s company men rather than the unionists on behalf of the employees. CAEU has been seen by TFACU’ members as a union only engaging in “sweet-heart” deals with CAδ and granting concessions to CAδ. CAEU was complained to be willing to sacrifice the employees’ long-run interests to benefit CAL.42 TEACU responded the demand of the flight attendants. Further according to the article 53, paragraph 1 of LSLD, a union shall not call a strike unless the strike has been approved by no less than one half of the members in total via direct and secret balloting. In order to meet this requirement, TEACU started on June 8, 2016 to call for a resolution regarding calling a strike which needs half of all the members to vote yes. The total number of members was 2,638 and the turn-outs were 2,548 constituting a rate of 96.5 percent of all the members. For all the 2,548 members turned out, 2,535 members voted yes constituting 99 percent of all those members who turned out. On June 23, 2016, the voting approved to go on 39 40 Liang-Jung Lin, Chiu Yu-Fan & Chang Hsin-Lung. Protection of Labor Unions and Remedies for Unfair Labor Practices (Chinese ed.) New Taipei City: Labor Vision (2012). Garment Workers v. Labor Board. 366 U.S. 731 (1961). Council of Labor Affairs (100) Unfair Labor Practice ULP adjudication Decision No. 1. 42 The president of CAEA was in the banquet with the CEOs of CAL while the strike started. 41 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 strike. On the midnight of June 24, 2016, the strike begins and the newly appointed CAδ’s chairman of board of directors accepted all the seven terms requested by TEACU. The strike ended.43 Downsides Arise from Collective Bargaining Some downsides are found in the process of collective bargaining of multiple unions system. Multiple unions’ representation creates rooms for unions to apply frog-leaping bargaining strategy. Right after the strike, quite embarrassedly, CAEU adopted leap-frogging strategy to bargain with CAL for much better terms. The CAEU representatives demanded even better terms by threating to hurt the employer badly. CAEU’s strategy made CAδ to accept all eight terms requested by CAEU on the 28th. This outcome is far from being a fair and efficient representation of same group of employees. It is quite obvious that Taiwan’s bargaining representative selection procedure has its loopholes. It may lead the employer to bargain with each union for the same group of employees. CAL needs to bargain with both CAEU and TEACU because they are all qualified to represent CAδ’s flight attendants. American Exclusive Representation and Duty of Fair Representation has its Merit in Multiple Unions’ Collective Bargaining According to article 6 of TCAL, employer (company) with multiple unions granted with representation power are not necessarily required to unify their collective bargaining avenue. It is quite obvious that CAEU would not cooperate with TEACU to unify a bargaining team and bargaining terms. After the strike, CAL had to bargain again with CAEU and by taking the advantage of the strike, CAEU would get what it want.44 For the management, it wasn’t the end of the strike but may be a beginning of many strikes.45 In United States, there are quite a lot of experiences as to the multiple unions competing to represent the employees working within one employer.46 Employer has to bargain for the same group of employees only once for employees within one unit. Employees may be organized into multiple unions but they only have an exclusive avenue to bargain for same group of employees. According to US NLRA, American bargaining representation is an exclusive representation system.47In the US system, the grant of 43 The seven terms includes, (1) a raise of business travel allowance up to 5 US dollars, (2) the rest days for a year shall not less than 123 days, for 1 month shall not less than 8 days, for a week shall not less than 2 days, (3) an amendment to performance evaluation system, )4) grant union’s business leave to the officers of union representatives, directors and supervisors, (5) revert back to the rules for on-duty reporting and shall not amend them, (6) the time working on national holidays should be paid in double, and (7) the time working for crosscontinental lines should be protected in accordance with the regulation of LSL. 44 Z-Ching Hsu. “CAδ Enterprise Union A nnounced that CAL Accepted all the eight terms Requested” United Daily, June 28, 2016. 45 After CAδ’s conclusion of collective agreement with TEACU and CAEU, another labor dispute with CAδ’s subsidiary, εandarin Airline )“εA”), raised by εA’s enterprise union )“εAEU”). With εAEU’ bargaining, CAδ and MA is under the threat of collectively going on leave on the moon festival that may be instituted by MAEU. 46 George Schatzki. Majority Rule, Exclusive Representation, and the Interests of Individual Workers: Should Exclusivity Be Abolished?” 123 U. Pa. L. Rev. 897 (1975). 47 National Labor Relations Board (1997). Basic Guide to the National Labor Relations Act: General Principles of Law Under the Statute and Procedures of the National Labor Relations Board, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 exclusive representation to a union is accompanied by a duty of fair representation for all employees.48 It causes a rising of labor management cost if an employer has to bargain with each qualified union. In American system, employer does not have to bargain with each representative union of each bargaining unit.49 Because the determination of finally designated bargaining union is based on majority status, the exclusive representation system improves the representative union's bargaining power which ensures all the employees’ right to be represented. It is true that repetitive bargaining waste resources for both labor and management. It would be good for Taiwan to minimize confusion in the process of collective bargaining. It would be wise for Taiwan to move current representation system to exclusive bargaining representation so that an employer doesn’t have to bargain for same group twice. Conclusion Through the analysis, present labor law has brought many changes to Taiwan’s industrial relation system. Learning from the strike, we found that trade unions as an established institution would obviously play a much significant role in the future. They will become much active not only in improving working conditions of employees but also making their voice heard in such a democratic society. The Revisions Benefit to the Industrial Democracy The strike has proved that the labor law revisions accomplished its goal in terms of benefiting employees to incorporate their own unions. Due to one-enterprise-one-union system of the past, unions were given exclusive representation authority but there were abuses of power at the expense of employees with different interests or backgrounds. We expect, in the future, this kind of de jure industry-level but de facto enterprise-level collective bargaining will increase due to the malfunction of enterprise unions. Under past system of representation, the interests of minority employees suffered in the absence of fair representation. The multiple unions system appears to be workable. The system of multiple unions better meets the needs of employees. Particularly, the new practice meets the need of the employees with different interests or skills than those of the majority of the employees in a company. The new labor law gives dissenting employees to enjoy the success of organization and collective bargaining. The status of more than half of all flight attendants were their members qualifying its representation power. For a non-enterprise union to represent the flight attendants of CAδ, it wasn’t a barrier at all. CAδ’s flight attendants as CAδ’s sub-group of employees have their own distinct interests and that is why outside craft union was able to organize them for representation in collective bargaining. The interests of minority employees were represented under the duty of fair representation. The Neutrality of Government and Employer is Needed Government holding neutral stance in governing the resolution procedures of labor disputes between the unions and employers improves autonomous capacity of labor and management in dealing with their own labor dispute. The revisions create mixed system of bargaining representation and the system creates the room to include minority enterprise unions, majority enterprise unions, majority cross-enterprise industrial unions and cross enterprise craft unions to be qualified as bargaining representative unions. As the above-mentioned, when an employer 48 Clyde Summers. Unions Without Majority – A Black Hole? Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 531, 539 (1990). Charles J. Morris. “Collective Rights as Human Right: Fulfilling Senator Wagner’s Promise of Democracy in the Workplace - The Blue Eagle Can Fly Again” 39 U.S.F. L. Rev. 701 (2005). 49 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 faces the new problem coming out of competing in the representation among multiple unions, impartiality to either union should be maintained. Labor law should Establish Single Avenue Bargaining of Exclusive Bargaining and Fair Representation to seal the Possibility of Repetitive Bargaining Allowing separate bargaining between an employer and each qualified union, the parties won’t be able to avoid repetitive bargaining for same group of employees. That was why CAEU didn’t have the problem furthering request to represent its flight attendant members. The strike and its aftermath labor disputes tell Taiwan it needs a system granting only one avenue between the parties for collective bargaining. The lack of a single bargaining avenue structure creates more conflicts between unions and management. The current system gives chances for competition among rival unions but employer may not be able to bargain with all the unions. The growth of labor disputes after the strike made the employers not in favor of multiple unions system because they have concerns about the bargaining strategies of leapfrogging. Current Taiwan’s none unified bargaining avenue system doesn’t not serve properly the interests of labor and management. American exclusive representation and duty of fair representation system provides single bargaining avenue in the case of multiple unions. Its exclusive representation election procedures allowing multiple unions competing to win representation of the same employees through election and the employer has to bargain with one unified bargaining union. The majority incumbent union under the system of exclusive representation prevents the possible problem that a company’s minority enterprise union also enjoying the right to represent all the employees of whole company. It benefits relevant unions and management in conducting one avenue collective bargaining. Exclusive representation, including election procedure, and the duty of fair representation should be introduced to the labor law of Taiwan. While the day, an employer has to bargain only with one majority union with respect to particular group of employees, it would be easier for both unions and employers to build cooperative industrial relations.References Chiu, Yu-Hui. “Cheng Wen-Stan: The Position is not Changed-No Compulsory Arbitration Incurred” United Daily, June 21, 2016. Council for Labor Affairs (100) Unfair Labor Practice ULP adjudication Decision No. 1. Taipei: Ministry of Labor. Finkin, Matthew W. The Road Not Taken: Some Thoughts on Nonmajority Employee Representation, 69 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 195 (1993). Hardin, Patrick ed. The Developing Labor Law : The Board, The Courts, And The National Labor Relations Act. Washington : BNA(2002). Hsu, Z-Ching. “CAδ Enterprise Union Announced that CAδ Accepted all the eight terms Requested” United Daily, June 28, 2016. Huang, I-Gin. “Refuse to Sign Slave δabor Contract under Article 84-1 of LSL: Thousands of CAδ Flight Attendants’ Protest by Demonstration and Threat to Go on Strike” Apple Daily, June 1, 2016. Hwang, Yueh-Chin. Lao Dong Fa Xin Lun (New Theory Labor Law) Taipei: Han-Lu Book Publishing (2000). Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Kaohsiung Federation of Industrial Union. “Article 84-1 of Labor Standards Law: A Slave Labor Provision?!” Ku-Lau Net, Feb.15, 2011. Lai, Yu-Tseng. “Complain CAδ for the fines of CAδ’s non-compliance up to NT$ 10,000,000: Cheng Wen-Tsan (City Mayor of Taoyuan) Supports the Industrial Action of Flight Attendants.” Ettoday, June 23, 2016. Lai, Yu-Tseng. ”CAδ Strike: Pan-Blue Law-makers Complained the Denial of Referring to Arbitration by Cheng Wen-Tsan is the εain Cause/ Tao: It is a Rule According to δaw” Ettoday June 24, 2016. Lin, Liang-Jung, Chiu Yu-Fan & Chang Hsin-Lung. Protection of Labor Unions and Remedies for Unfair Labor Practices (Chinese ed.) New Taipei City: Labor Vision (2012). Lu, Chiu-Yuen “CAδ’s Slavery Provisions: The Number of Working Hours under New Contract is 46 Hours longer than the Hours Permitted by δSδ, Overtime is Not Calculated!” 呂秋遠 Buzz Orange, June 3, 2016. εorris, Charles J. “Collective Rights as Human Right: Fulfilling Senator Wagner’s Promise of Democracy in the Workplace - The Blue Eagle Can Fly Again” 39 U.S.F. δ. Rev. 701 )2005). National Labor Relations Board. Basic Guide to the National Labor Relations Act: General Principles of Law Under the Statute and Procedures of the National Labor Relations Board, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office (1997). Schatzki, George. “εajority Rule, Exclusive Representation, and the Interests of Individual Workers: Should Exclusivity Be Abolished?” 123 U. Pa. δ. Rev. 897 )1975). Shih, Tang. “Why Flight Attendants’ Go On Strike? A Cabin εanager’s Death of Overwork, CAδ Ask Employee Wash Hands εore” Taiwan People News, June 24, 2016. Summers, Clyde. “Unions Without εajority – A Black Hole?” 66 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 531 (1990). Wang, Hou-Cheng. Jian Gou Gong Hwei Xin Fa Zhan: Gong Hwei Fa Xiou Zhong Dian (Establish the New Development of the Unions: The Key Points of the Amendments to the Labor Union Law) 22 Taiwan Labor Quarterly 48-49(2010). Yang, Tung-Shiuan. Ji Ti Lao Dong Fa (Collective Labor Law) Taipei: Wu-Nan Book Publishing (2007). Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Change Management in Engineering Educational Institutions A case study from India K G Viswanadhan, College of Engineering, Kidangoor, Kerala, India Sindhu R, NSS College of Engineering, Palakkad, Kerala, India Abstract Quality is in the centre stage in any organizational context. But, what is quality and how it can be achieved is still a hot topic. Many engineering educational institutions in the state of Kerala, India are in a dilemma how to establish a quality assurance and management system within the college. The project presented here is a case study in this context utilizing the models of change management for the development of quality management system in an engineering educational institution. Action research is opted as the methodology. It was found that if there is a demand for and an external pressure is in place, then only a quality assurance system will flourish within the College in the present circumstances. Key words: Quality, Quality management, Change management, Engineering education, Action research 1. Introduction A well maintained quality assurance system is the backbone of any educational institution. It will streamline the educational processes and assure the quality of outcomes. But, quality assurance system at present is very weak in many engineering college in Kerala India. Only, the Principal and a few Head of the Departments are involved in the Quality related activities. Most of the staff members are least bothered about the quality of education provided by the college. It is decided to address this issue through a Change management project. The area selected for the change management project is the ‘Quality Assurance System’ for an Engineering college in Kerala, India. Aim of the project is set as To investigate into the ways and means to strengthen the Quality Assurance System of Engineering colleges in Kerala. To develop an effective Quality Assurance System which suits the present scenario of the college under study. 2. Literature review Against a background of rapid technological development, a growing knowledge workforce and the shifting of accepted work practices, change is becoming an ever-present feature of organisational life (Burnes, 2004). Organisational change is so rapid and unpredictable that it Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 cannot be managed from the top down. Instead, change should be seen as a process of learning. Implementation is the difficult step after the decision to change and to use it regularly at the organization (Klein and Sorra, 1996). Resistance to change may arise due to various reasons. A strong implementation climate when the values’ relation is negative may result in resistance and opposition to change (Klein and Sorra, 1996; Schalk et al., 1998). The organization has to face departmental politics or resistance from those departments that will suffer with the change implementation (Beer and Eisenstat, 1996; Beer et al., 1990; Rumelt, 1995). Deep rooted values and emotional loyalty (Krüger, 1996; Nemeth, 1997; Strebel, 1994) and forgetfulness of the social dimension of changes (Lawrence, 1954; Schalk et al., 1998) may be other reasons. But, resistance can also be considered as a source of information to develop a more successful change process (Beer and Eisenstat, 1996; Goldstein, 1988; Lawrence, 1954; Piderit, 2000; Waddell and Sohal, 1998). To increase the chances of change being successful, several researchers have suggested a sequence of actions that organisations should take (Kotter, 1996, Kanter et al., 1992, Luecke, 2003). Todnem )2005) focused on “change readiness and facilitating for change” than for providing specific pre-planned steps for each change project and initiative. Lewin (1952, in Elrod II and Tippett, 2002) argued that change involves a three stage process: firstly, unfreezing current behaviour; secondly, moving to the new behaviour; and, finally, refreezing the new behaviour. This model was adopted for many years as the dominant framework for understanding the process of organisational change (Todnem, 2005). Kotter’s εodel suggests an eight stage process for change management. They are Developing a vision and Strategy, Establishing a sense of urgency, Creating a guiding coalition, Empowering broad-based action, Communicating the change vision, Anchoring new approaches in the culture, Generating shortterm wins and Consolidating gains and producing more change. As for an educational institution, Kotter’s eight-stage process for successful organisational transformation seems to be best suited model, it is selected for the present change management project. 3. Change Management for Quality Assurance System The eight steps of Kotter are revisited for the problem under study as described below. 3.1. Developing a vision and Strategy A clear outlook about the future state to be reached and a strategy to be adopted to reach that state have to be developed. The first stage is to collect data and information about the area of investigation. The next step is to identify the sources. The sources can be categorized as two. Primary data: They are original data collected at source. The opinions about the working of the present quality assurance practices in each department are collected through the interviews with the Head of the departments. It has been noticed that irrespective of the departments, no structured quality assurance procedures are taking place in the college. Secondary data: They are data that already exists in some or other forms. This information is collected for identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the College with respect to the Quality assurance systems. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The College under study (College A) was established in 1960 with three branches during the second Five – Year plan with the assistance of Central and State Government under the Grant in – Aid scheme. The College having started with three branches of Engineering viz, Civil, Mechanical and Electrical & Electronics Engineering, made long strides with the introduction of Instrumentation & Control Engineering course in 1980, Electronics & Communication Engineering in 1986 and Computer Science Engineering in 1999. At present, the institution also offers MTech degree courses in Communication engineering, Power Electronics, Computer Science & Engineering, Structural Engineering and Computer Integrated Manufacturing. Following are the administrative advisory bodies supporting the administrative and academic functions of the institution. College Council: is the statutory body authorized to advice the principal in all administrative and academic matters referred to the council Chairman: Principal Members: All Department Heads and three elected members from the faculty College Administrative Body: The Principal and all Head of the Departments constitute the administrative body which executes all academic and administrative functions Council of Faculty members: All faculty members form the council of faculty, with a wider perspective of giving suggestions on administrative and academic matters referred. The current position of the ‘Resources’ of the college is also a valuable information for the successful implementation of the project. The faculty includes 43 Professors, 32 Associate professors and 53 Assistant professors out of which 28 are PhD holders and 100 are Post graduates. In addition to this there are 83 technical staff and 35 ministerial staff for the smooth functioning of the college. All these resources will help in the implementation of a better Quality assurance system in the college. The different ways and means to achieve the aim of the proposed project have to be explored in the next phases. The quality assurance system of the six engineering departments - Civil engineering, Mechanical engineering, Electrical & Electronics engineering, Instrumentation & control engineering, Electronics & communication engineering and Computer science and engineering were investigated for the project. The project also analysed the present barriers in achieving quality improvement in these six departments. The objectives of the project are set as To investigate the present status of the Quality assurance system of the college To find out the reasons behind the present setting of the Quality assurance system of the college To explore the ways and means to overcome the barriers, if any, towards achieving the quality To implement the alternate measures towards quality assurance To analyze outcomes of the new measures and recommend modifications needed, if any Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The strategies or steps involved in the project are identified as follows. Identify Quality assurance best practices in Engineering colleges in India Develop a system to collect present status of Quality assurance practices in College A Develop a questionnaire to collect opinions of the faculty members towards the barriers in implementing a quality assurance system in the college. Interview faculty and other staff members on the strategies to implement a better quality assurance system in the college. Develop action plans and document them Analyze the latest working of the implemented system in each department and the College to draw conclusions. 3. 2. Establishing a sense of urgency The need for a well established quality assurance system is communicated to the Faculty community. It is decided to adopt the criteria for NBA accreditation for establishing a quality assurance system for the college. Self Assessment Report (SAR) of NBA is selected as the format of data collection. Noting the slow pace of Faculty members, a questionnaire was designed and administered among faculty to find out the barriers in the process. Many barriers or options were identified from the analysis of the survey. The first one was that it is not mandatory to undergo accreditation process, without which also the college can survive. Next, was about the cost (fee for applying and other preparation expenses) involved in it. Another one was that more time (at least one more year) is required for preparations. Being aware that these objections could be accounted towards the inherent attitude to changes of the system, remedial measures were thought off to overcome the situation. The remedial measure identified is the intervention of College Management in the situation. To create urgency, it is decided to apply for NBA accreditation as early as possible. The fee for accreditation is remitted by the Management, which added more emergency to the situation. 3.3. Creating a guiding coalition Under the coordination of the researcher a team of 15 faculty members, two from each of the six engineering departments and two from supporting departments were identified for the project. Various documents, both Institution wise and Department wise were identified for filling up SAR by the team. Sixteen sub committees, each as coalitions of the six engineering and supporting departments were selected for preparing 16 Institution wise documents. Department wise documents were entrusted with 13 teams from each of the six engineering departments. Meetings were organized to discuss the data collection and documentation. Timely meetings were arranged to review the progress. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 3. 4. Empowering broad-based action The teams were empowered to formulate the action plan by the College Management. A detailed action plan is prepared by the main team with reference to various models and techniques available in literature for change management and is displayed in Table 1. Table 1 Action Plan for development of Quality Management System Sl Action No Action measure Leadership style Commn methods By whom By when 1 Identify quality Number of best Pace assurance best practices practices setting in various Engineering colleges in India Oral and Research written er 2 Design a format to Documentation Visionary collect the present status of format and of Quality assurance Coaching practices in NSS College of Engineering Oral , Research Two written and er and week meeting Staff s 3 Collect the present status Documentation Democratic of Quality assurance practices Written and meeting HOD Two week s Sl Action Leadership style Commn methods By whom By when Visionary and Coaching Written Research er One week Research and er Two week s No Action measure 4 Develop a questionnaire Reliable to collect opinions of the questionnaire faculty towards the barriers in implementing a quality assurance system in the college 5 Conduct interviews with Number of Democratic faculty and other staff interviews, members on the Documentation strategies to implement a better quality assurance Oral written One mont h Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 system 6 Develop and document Documentation Visionary action plans and Pace Written setting Research er Two week s 7 Form various committees for Institution wise collection and processing of data Number of Visionary committees and and Democratic Documentation Oral and Principal written and Research er One week 8 Form various committees for department wise collection and processing of data Number of Visionary committees and and Democratic Documentation Oral and HOD written and Research er One week 9 Organize meetings for Number Institutional data meetings of Democratic Meeting Principal and Research er Two week s 10 Organize meetings for Number departmental data meetings of Democratic Meeting HOD and Research er One mont h 11 Explain the proposed Number system of quality meetings assurance in meetings of Coaching Oral and Research meeting er One mont h 12 Brain storm to fine tune Number the proposals meetings of Democratic Meeting , Coaching and Oral and affiliating 13 Finalize the formal Documentation Visionary, Meeting systems to collect, Pace and written analyze, maintain and setting and improve data related to Coaching quality assurance of departments and the College Staff One mont h Principal One , HODs week and Research er Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Sl Action No 14 15 16 Action measure Fix time lines to collect Gantt chart and analyze data Leadership style Commn methods Pace Written setting and Visionary Implement the newly Documentation Commandi developed system ng Written Review the newly Meetings developed system in timely meetings Meeting Democratic and affiliating By whom By when Research er One Principal One week week Principal and Research er One week 17 Analyze the latest Number of Coaching working of the staff involved implemented system in each department Oral, Research written and er meeting One mont h 18 Analyze the latest Number of Coaching working of the staff involved implemented system in the College as a whole Oral, meeting and written Research er Two week s 19 Draw conclusions Number Pace setting Written Research er One week 20 Identify limitations of Number the Project Pace setting Written Research er One Research er One 21 Determine scope future research for Documentation Visionary Written week week 3.5. Communicating the change vision The major change to be adopted in the working of the college for survival and excelling in the engineering education field focusing on a long term goal and vision was being communicated to the employees through the main and sub teams. Many brain storming sessions were arranged for clarifying doubts, evolving new ways and means for improvement and for effective communication of the changed vision of the College. 3. 6. Anchoring new approaches in the culture Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 A new culture of research and investigation is introduced in the organization. An option that meets the project aim, ‘Action research’ is proposed to be utilized for the study. Action research is an interactive inquiry process that balances problem solving actions implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative analysis or research to understand underlying causes enabling future predictions about personal and organizational change. Action research involves actively participating in a change situation, often via an existing organization, whilst simultaneously conducting research guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies, practices and knowledge of the environments within which they practice. Through an initial faculty survey (3 faculty members each from 6 engineering departments), it was revealed that the effectiveness of existing quality assurance system is very weak. Data were not collected in time about the curricular, co-curricular and extracurricular activities within the college. Documentation of information was also very poor. As an initial step towards the research, literatures were reviewed and some top ranked engineering colleges were visited to identify possible best practices of those colleges which could be adopted for College A. 3. 7. Generating short-term wins Though the outcomes were expected on a long term basis, short term wins or achievements are also to be identified for motivating the employees and to measure the progress/ impact of the Project. They can be called as Key Performance Indicators (KPI) and Key Impact Measures (KIM). Key Performance Indicators (KPI)  Number of Faculty involved in quality assurance process  Number of Technical staff involved in quality assurance process  Number of meetings per semester – Department wise  Number of meetings per semester – Institution wise  Number of documents – Department wise  Number of documents – Institution wise  Number of Co-curricular activities per year  Frequency of updating documents Key Impact Measures (KIM)  Publishing News letters from the departments  Organizing Conferences by faculty  Organizing fests by students  Faculty participation in training programmes  Research publications from faculty  Remedial classes for weak students  Updating of Manuals for labs equipments  Updating of Manuals for lab experiments 3.8. Consolidating gains and producing more change After finalizing the basic documentation part, the same teams were assigned with filling up of SARs. Training sessions were arranged for a fortnight to assist the process. Timely meetings were arranged to review the progress. Through a concentrated effort over a period of one year, the team succeeded in uploading SARs of 5 Departments. One department, which identified as weak in terms of NBA criteria was withdrawn from accreditation process, but continued in the Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 establishment of Quality Management System. The impact of actions taken is visible in the improvements of KPIs and KIMs. They are demonstrated in figures 1 and 2 given below. Figure 1: KPI before and after the project Figure 2: KIM before and after the project 4. Conclusions It was found that if there is a demand for and an external pressure is in place, then only a quality assurance system will flourish within the College in the present circumstances. The external Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 pressure, which led to the completion of this project, was the decision to undergo accreditation process of National Board of Accreditation (NBA), India. This decision worked out and now a quantum jump could be observed in quality assurance measures within the college. The project has been completed successfully through a series of steps. Questionnaire was developed, interviews were conducted with faculty and other staff members, various committees were formed, meetings were held, formal systems were finalized for quality assurance of departments and the College and the newly developed system put in place and was reviewed periodically. References 1. Beer, ε. and Eisenstat, R.A. )1996) “Developing an organization capable of implementing strategy and learning”, Human Relations, 49 )5), pp. 597-617. 2. Beer, M. Eisenstat, R.A. and Spector, B. )1990) “Why Change Programs Don’t Produce Change”, Harvard Business Review, 68 )6), pp. 158-166. 3. Burnes, B. (2004) Managing Change: A Strategic Approach to Organisational Dynamics, 4th edn (Harlow: Prentice Hall) 4. Elrod II, P. D. and Tippett, D. D. )2002) ‘The “death valley” of change’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, 3, pp. 273 – 291 5. Goldstein, J. )1988) “A Far-from-Equilibrium Systems Approach to Resistance to Change”, Organizational Dynamics, (Autumn), pp. 16-26. 6. Kanter, R.M., Stein, B. A. and Jick, T.D (1992) The Challenge of Organizational Change ( New York: The Free Press) 7. Klein, K.J. and Sorra, J.S. )1996) “The challenge of innovation implementation”, Academy of Management Review, 21 (4), pp. 22-42. 8. Kotter, J.P. (1996) Leading Change (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press) 9. Krüger, W. )1996) “Implementation: The Core Task of Change εanagement”, CEεS Business Review, 1, pp. 77-96. 10. δawrence, P.R. )1954) “How to Deal with Resistance to Change”, Harvard Business Review, (May/June), pp. 49-57. 11. Luecke,R.(2003)Managing Change and Transition(Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press) 12. Nemeth, C.J. )1997) “εanaging innovation: When less is more”, California εanagement Review, 40 (1), pp. 59-74 13. Piderit, S.K. )2000) “Rethinking resistance and recognizing ambivalence: a multidimensional view of attitudes toward an organizational change”, Academy of εanagement Review, 25 )4), pp. 783-794. 14. Rumelt, R.P. )1995), “ Inertia and transformation”, in εontgomery, C.A., Resource Based and Evolutionary Theories of the Firm, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Massachusetts, pp. 101-132 15. Schalk, R., Campbell, J.W. and Freese, C. )1998) “Change and employee behaviour”, δeadership & Organization Development Journal, 19 (3), pp. 157-163. 16. Strebel, P. )1994) “Choosing the right change path”, California εanagement Review, 36 )2), pp. 29-51. 17. Todnem, R. )2005) ‘Organisational Change εanagement: A Critical Review’, Journal of Change Management, 5, 4, pp.369 – 380 18. Waddell, D. and Sohal, A.S. )1998) “Resistance: a constructive tool for change management”, Management Decision, 36 (8), pp. 543-548. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Study on Classroom Management and Teaching Efficiency for Filipino High School Teachers Nelson T. DIAZ50, Kenichi SASAKI51 and Morrisson J. MISALUCHA52 Abstract The study aimed to investigate the classroom management and teaching efficiency for Filipino fourth year teachers of Los Baños National High School, LBNHS, as perceived by selected students, selected faculty members, academic coordinators and head teachers and its effect to students’ achievement and attainment. The authors used questionnaires based on the Department of Education’s guidelines on rating teacher performance that determines the classroom management and teaching efficiency in S.Y 2014-2015. Based on the findings of this study, the respondents mostly agreed that fourth year teachers are competent on classroom management and efficient in teaching. And there is no significant difference in the mean rank level of response on classroom management competency and teaching efficiency for them. Keywords: Classroom Management, Teaching Efficiency, Classroom Conditioning and Direction, Control of Learning Process. I. Introduction The fourth year teachers of Los Baños National High School, LBNHS, are often exposed with many challenges on their day to day teaching tasks, In addition to this, another pressure is that they are dealing with a large number of students per classroom and the question always lies with the competency and the efficiency of the teacher. After the results were gathered, the authors compared the perceptions of selected fourth year students, selected faculty members, academic coordinators and head teachers and states an analysis. Furthermore, it is expected that after the pertinent information have been collected, the result of this study will served as benchmark for the improvement of teachers classroom management towards the attainment of classroom management and teaching efficiency. The authors believes that classroom management plays a great role in determining the quality of education an institution can offer, and it comes with the impression of how efficient the educators are. It will be very significant to gather facts based on assessments in order to come up with its effect to students performance as to their achievements and attainments. The outcome of the findings in this study is beneficial to the following: 50 Los Baños National High School and Laguna State Polytechnic University, PHILIPPINES Hokkaido University of Education, JAPAN 52 Los Baños National High School, PHILIPPINES 51 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 To the Students, this study will be able to help them realized the importance good classroom management in the attainment of quality education that will gear them and make them competitive. To the Teachers, this study will be able to help them realize that competent classroom management and efficient teaching makes a difference to what learners achieve, but managing classrooms for effective learning is a demanding task, involving an extensive repertoire of complex skills and abilities. This may also give them the opportunity to look by themselves the implications of mismanaged classroom practices. Nevertheless, this study could also be used to improve classroom management practices. To the Parents, the result of this research may give a good insight as to the importance of their involvement in providing opportunities to their children to enjoy classroom activities. To the School Administrators, this study will be able to help their institution in assessing teachers’ performances through classroom management and meeting the schools standard and making them more competitive. To the Future Researchers, this study will provide additional information and new insights which is hopefully useful for those who will undertake similar studies with the same or similar instruments. To the Community, this study may serve as awareness to the practices of teachers in school and how they manage the classroom activities in school. II. Research Methodology In this paper, the descriptive method of research are used to describe the classroom management and teaching efficiency of fourth year faculty member of Los Baños National High School as perceived by selected students, selected faculty members, academic coordinators and head teachers during SY 2014-2015. The method involved range from the survey, which describes the status quo, the correlation study that investigates the relationship between variables, and developmental studies that seek to determine changes over time, which is applicable to this study. It also includes giving of survey questionnaires. The authors used the scientific determination of sample size to determine the actual numbers of selected fourth year general curriculum morning shift student respondents. The formula for scientific determination for sample size: Ss = NV + [Se² (1-p)] NSe + [V² x p (1-p)] Where: Ss = Sample size N = Total number of population V = The standard value (2.58) of 1 percent of probability with 0.99 reliability Se = Sampling error (0.01) p = The largest proportion Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 For the total population of 525 with the standard value at 1 percent, the level of probability is 2.58 with 99% reliability and has a sampling error of 1% or 0.01 and the proportion of a target population is 50% or 0.50, the sample size for a population of 525 is 195.57 or 196. A total of 245 respondents which include 196 general curriculum morning shift fourth year high school students’ respondents, 42 selected faculty members 2 academic coordinators and 5 head teachers has been the respondents in this study. As for instrumentation in this study, the authors used their made questionnaires based on the Department of Education’s guidelines on rating teacher performance that determines the classroom management and teaching efficiency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS SY 2014-2015. The authors conducted a pre-survey among fourth year students about their perception on the competency and efficiency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS. After the surveys were gathered, the researcher formulated questionnaires that will address and answer each question in the statement of the problem. Each item of the questionnaire which came from the survey was carefully studied to ensure that it would yield valid results. The questionnaire is in a checklist form using Likert 5 point scale of agreement which is the most widely used response scale to measure attitudes and other factors (Bradley 2008), for selected fourth year students respondents, selected faculty members, academic coordinators and head teachers where they were asked to check the teachers classroom management based on the following: classroom routine, classroom discipline, direction and control of learning process, techniques and social relationship to students. While, teaching strategies, use of instructional materials, mastery of subject matter and presentation skill as a basis of determining the teaching efficiency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS. The results of the survey will be reflected on students’ general average and completion data on year end reports. δikert Scaling for the Degree of Agreement is following: 5- Strongly agree/ 4- Agree/ 3- Neither agree nor disagree/ 2Disagree / 1- Strongly disagree The data gathered from the questionnaires were subjected to statistical analysis and interpretation. The following statistical treatments were employed to obtain a valid and reliable interpretation. Frequency distribution was used for tallying and tabulating all numerical data collected according to category and required information. Two- Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)- this was used to test whether or not there is significant difference in the mean rank level of classroom management and teaching efficiency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS as perceived by selected students, fourth year faculty members, head teachers and coordinators. The Friedman’s test statistic )Qk) is: Where: Qk = Friedman’s two-way ANOVA by ranks, N = Number of rows, K = Number of columns The authors used their made questionnaire based on the Department of Education’s guidelines on rating teacher performance that determines the classroom management and teaching efficiency for fourth year LBNHS teacher in SY 2014-2015. It is in a checklist form using Likert 5 point scale of agreement which is the most widely used response scale to measure attitudes and other Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 factors (Bradley 2008), for 196 selected fourth year students53, 42 selected faculty members54, 7 academic coordinators or head teachers55 where they were asked to check the teachers the criteria of classroom management and teaching strategies, use of instructional materials, mastery of subject matter and presentation skill as a basis of determining the teaching efficiency of fourth year LBNHS teachers. The results of the survey will be reflected on students’ general average and completion data on year end reports. Hypotheses are following. H0: There is no significant difference in the mean rank level of response of classroom management for fourth year LBNHS teachers as perceived by selected students, selected faculty members, academic coordinators and head teachers. H1: There is no significant difference in the mean rank level of response of teaching efficiency for fourth year LBNHS teachers as perceived by selected students, selected faculty members, academic coordinators and head teachers. III. Analysis and Interpretation of Data This chapter presents the analysis and interpretation of the data obtained in the study. The authors set three following sub problems and explain them one by one on the base of the results of the questionnaire. )Sub Problem 1) What are the respondents’ perceptions on classroom management and teaching efficiency for fourth year LBHNS teachers based on the criteria in Table1 Table1 Criteria of Classroom Management and Teaching Efficiency CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT TEACHING EFFICIENCY 1. 1. Classroom Conditioning 1. Teaching Strategies 2. Classroom Discipline 2. Uses of Instructional Materials 3. Guidance and Direction on Learning 3. Mastery of Subject Matter Process 4. Techniques on Classroom Management 53 4. Presentation Skills Out of 196 student respondents 107 or 55% are female and 89 or 45% are male. For their gender, 17 or 40% are male while 25 or 60% are female. For their area of specialization 5 or 12% are from English department and also 5 or 12% are from Math department, 7 or 16% from Science, 4 or 10% from Filipino, also 7 or 12% from Araling Panlipunan (Social Studies) department, 4 or 10% are from T.L.E, 6 or 14% from MAPEH department and 4 or 10% are from Values Education department and for their teaching position, 29 or 69% are Teacher I, 6 or 14% are Teacher II, 2 or 5% are Teacher III and 5 or 12% are Master Teacher. 55 The Number of academic coordinators or head teachers are 7. They have a length of educational service of more than 10 years. Academic Coordinators are designated by the principal or higher school officials in case there are no appointed head teacher from a department. While head teachers are appointed academic heads. Academic Coordinators are not permanent while Head Teachers are permanent because it is a government item or position. 54 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 5. Social Relationship to Students - Table 2 shows the results of Weighted Mean on Classroom Management of Fourth Year Faculty Members of LBNHS as perceived by selected fourth year high school students. First, the selected fourth year student respondents agreed that those faculty members are competent on classroom management in terms of classroom conditioning with the computed weighted mean of 4.26 they are able to set the mood by using effective motivation techniques. Second, classroom discipline at 4.39 computed weighted mean, selected student respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members were able to implement rules and regulations. Third, guidance and direction on learning process at computed weighted mean 4.13 the selected fourth year student respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are competent, since they have the skills in planning their lessons well, they were able to facilitate an exchange of ideas among students and teacher. Fourth, techniques on classroom management at 3.94 computed weighted mean, the selected fourth year student respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are competent because they have appropriate techniques that make students engaged in classroom activities. Fifth, teachers’ social relationship to students with computed weighted mean 3.96, selected fourth year student respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members have developed a good relationship with students that made them involved in the teaching process. Finally, with the computed total weighted mean of 4.14 the selected fourth year student respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are competent in classroom management. Table 2 Weighted Mean on Classroom Management of Fourth Year Faculty Members of LBNHS as perceived by selected Fourth Year High School Students CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT εEAN x) ) DESCRIPTIVE INTERPRETATION 1. 1. Classroom Conditioning 4.26 Agree 2. Classroom Discipline 4.39 Agree 3. Guidance and Direction on Learning Process 4.13 Agree 4. Techniques on Classroom Management 3.94 Agree 5. Social Relationship to Students 3.96 Agree Total Weighted Mean 4.14 Agree Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Table 3 Weighted Mean on Teaching Efficiency of Fourth Year Faculty Members of Los Baños National High School as perceived by selected Fourth Year High School. DESCRIPTIVE TEACHING EFIICIENCY εEAN ) x) 1. Teaching Strategies 4.41 Agree 2. Uses of Instructional Materials 4.09 Agree 3. Mastery of Subject Matter 4.17 Agree 4. Presentation Skills 4.21 Agree 4.22 Agree Total weighted Mean INTERPRETATION Table 3 shows the results of mean on teaching efficiency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS as perceived by selected fourth year high school student. First, the selected students agreed that those faculty members are efficient teachers in terms of teaching strategies with the computed weighted mean 4.41; the teachers were able to utilize the active learning and execute the art of questioning and develop higher level of thinking among the students. Second, uses of instructional materials with computed weighted mean 4.09, the selected fourth year respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members were able to use appropriate instructional materials for better understanding of the topics being presented. Thirdly, the selected students agreed that their fourth year faculty members has the mastery of the subject matter, with the computed weighted mean 4.17. They were able to avoid misinformation during classroom discussion, furthermore, teachers were able to find time incorporating ideas for further enrichment of information. Fourth, with computed weighted mean of 4.21 they were able to show creativity and resourcefulness in presenting their lessons, furthermore, the study revealed that fourth year faculty members are skilled in using computer aided presentation/power point presentation. Finally, with total weighted mean of 4.22 the selected fourth year students agreed that fourth year faculty members has teaching efficiency. Table 4 Weighted Mean on Classroom Management of Fourth Year Faculty Members of LBNHS as perceived by selected Faculty Members. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT εEAN )x) 1. 1. Classroom Conditioning 4.37 DESCRIPTIVE INTERPRETATION Agree Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 2. Classroom Discipline 4.38 Agree 3. Guidance and Direction on Learning Process 4.32 Agree 4. Techniques on Classroom Management 4.31 Agree 5. Social Relationship to Students 4.18 Agree Total Weighted Mean 4.31 Agree Table 4 shows the results of weighted mean on classroom management of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS as perceived by selected faculty members. First, the selected faculty member respondents agreed that those fourth year faculty members are competent on classroom management in terms of classroom conditioning with the computed weighted mean of 4.37 they are able to set the mood by using effective motivation techniques. Second, classroom discipline at 4.38 computed weighted mean, selected faculty member-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members were able to set a clear classroom rules. Third, guidance and direction on learning process at computed weighted mean 4.32 the selected faculty member-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are competent in classroom management, since they have developed a free exchange of ideas and giving attentions to those topics were students faced difficulties. Fourth, teachers’ social relationship to students with computed weighted mean 4.18, selected faculty member-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members have developed a good relationship among the students because, the students were able to adjust their behaviors and made them realized the importance of their teachers advices. Finally, with the computed total weighted mean of 4.34 the selected faculty member-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are competent in classroom management. Table 5 shows weighted mean on teaching efficiency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS as perceived by selected faculty members. First, the selected faculty member-respondents agreed that those fourth year faculty members are efficient teachers in terms of teaching strategies with the computed weighted mean 4.16 because the teachers were able to establish a cooperative learning as one of the most appropriate teaching strategy. Second, uses of instructional materials with computed weighted mean 4.37, the selected faculty-member respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members were able to use appropriate instructional materials for better understanding of the topics being presented. Third, the selected faculty-member respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members has the mastery of the subject matter, with the computed weighted mean 4.28, they were able to give a clear interpretation of topics being discussed. Fourth, selected faculty member-respondents strongly-agreed that fourth year faculty members were all efficient in presenting their lessons. Finally, with computed weighted mean of 4.56 which was the highest value of all the variables, because the teachers are skillful in various techniques in presenting their lessons. Table 5 Weighted Mean on Teaching Efficiency of Fourth Year Faculty Members of LBNHS as perceived by selected Faculty Members. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 DESCRIPTIVE TEACHING EFFICIENCY εEAN )x) 1. Teaching Strategies 4.16 Agree 2. Uses of Instructional Materials 4.37 Agree 3. Mastery of Subject Matter 4.28 Agree 4. Presentation Skills 4.56 Strongly-Agree Total weighted Mean 4.34 Agree INTERPRETATION Table 6 Weighted Mean on Classroom Management of Fourth Year Faculty Members of LBNHS as perceived by Academic Coordinators and Head Teachers CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT εEAN x) ) DESCRIPTIVE INTERPRETATION 1. 1. Classroom Conditioning 3.97 Agree 2. Classroom Discipline 4.09 Agree 3. Guidance and Direction on Learning Process 4.31 Agree 4. Techniques on Classroom Management 4.27 Agree 5. Social Relationship to Students 4.26 Agree Total Weighted Mean 4.18 Agree Table 6 shows the weighted mean on classroom management of fourth year LBNHS teachers as perceived by academic coordinator and head teacher-respondents. First, the academic coordinator and head teacher-respondents agreed those fourth year faculty members are competent on classroom management in terms of classroom conditioning with the computed weighted mean of 3.97 they are able to set the mood by using effective motivation techniques. Second, classroom discipline at 4.09 computed weighted mean, academic coordinators and head teacher-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are competent in classroom management because they were able to handle their classes with smoothly, through Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 implementations of rules particularly to those with unpleasant behaviors. Third, guidance and direction on learning process at computed weighted mean 4.31 academic coordinator and head teacher-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are competent in classroom management, since teachers are committed and hardworking. Fourth, techniques on classroom management at 4.27 computed weighted mean, the academic coordinator and head teacherrespondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are competent because they were able to execute various and appropriate techniques that ensures learning. Fifth, teachers’ social relationship to students with computed weighted mean 4.26, academic coordinators-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty member are competent, because they were able to established a good and warm relationship among the students. Finally, with the computed total weighted mean of 4.18 the academic coordinators and head teacher-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are competent in classroom management. Table 7 shows weighted mean on teaching efficiency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS as perceived by academic coordinator and head teacher-respondents. First, the academic coordinator and head teacher-respondents strongly agreed that those fourth year faculty members are efficient teachers in terms of teaching strategies with the computed weighted mean 4.54, because the teachers were able used a wide integration of lessons that will broaden the acquisition of knowledge of the students. Second, uses of instructional materials with computed weighted mean 4.14, the academic coordinator and head teacher-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members were able to use appropriate instructional materials for better understanding of the topics being presented. The academic coordinator and head teacherrespondents agreed that fourth year faculty members has the mastery of the subject matter, with the computed weighted mean 4.43, they were able to give a clear interpretation of topics being discussed. With computed weighted mean of 4.21 the academic coordinator and head teacherrespondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are efficient teachers in terms of presentation skills. Because, they were able to show various skills in presenting their lessons hence, making them more confident every time they enter the classrooms. Finally, with total weighted mean of 4.33 the academic coordinator and head teacher-respondents agreed that fourth year faculty members are efficient teachers. Table 7 Weighted Mean on Teaching Efficiency of Fourth Year LBNHS teachers as perceived by Academic Coordinator and Head Teacher-Respondents. TEACHING EFFICIENCY εEAN x) ) DESCRIPTIVE INTERPRETATION 1. 1. Classroom Conditioning 4.54 Agree 2. Uses of Instructional Materials Classroom 4.14 Agree 3. Techniques on Classroom Management 4.43 Agree 4. Social Relationship to Students 4.21 Agree Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Total Weighted Mean 4.33 Agree (Sub Problem 2) Is there a significant difference in the mean rank level of responses on classroom management and teaching efficiency of fourth faculty of Los Baños National High School as perceived by the selected senior students, selected faculty members, academic coordinators and head teachers? To solve this sub problem, the authors use the Friedman’s Two-Way ANOVA in three different groups of subjects exposed to the same set of observations. As for classroom management, the computed Friedman’s test )Qk) value obtained is 2.8 which is insignificant at 1 percent level of confidence because the computed Qk value is lesser than the tabular value of 9.21 with degree of freedom (df) of 2. This means that there is no significant difference in the mean rank level of responses on classroom management competency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS as perceived by selected fourth year high school, selected faculty members and academic coordinator and head teachers. Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. Table 8 shows the Friedman’s Two-Way ANOVA in three different groups of subjects exposed to the same set of observations for the mean rank level of responses on classroom management of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS as perceived by selected fourth year high school, selected faculty members and academic coordinators and head teachers. Table 8 Friedman’s Two-Way ANOVA for the Mean Rank Level of Responses on Classroom Management CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 1. Classroom Conditioning 2. Classroom Discipline ACADEMIC SELECTED COORDINATOR FACULTY S AND HEAD MEMBERS TEACHERS SELECTED FOURTH YEAR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS εEAN )x) FR εEAN )x) FR εEAN )x) FR 3.97 1 4.37 3 4.27 2 4.09 1 4.38 2 4.39 3 4.31 2 4.32 3 4.13 1 3. Guidance and Direction on Learning Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Process 4. Techniques on Classroom 4.27 2 4.31 3 3.94 1 4.26 3 4.18 2 3.96 1 Management 5. Social Relationship to Students Ri 9 13 8 As for teaching efficiency, the computed Friedman’s test )Qk) value obtained is 2.4 which is insignificant at 1 percent level of confidence because the computed Qk value is lesser than the tabular value of 9.21 with degree of freedom (df) of 2. This means that there is no significant difference in the mean rank level of responses on classroom management competency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS as perceived by selected fourth year high school, selected faculty members and academic coordinator and head teachers. Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. Table 9 shows the Friedman’s two-way ANOVA in three different groups of subjects exposed to the same set of observations for the mean rank level of responses on teaching efficiency of fourth year faculty members of LBNHS as perceived by selected fourth year high school, selected faculty members and academic coordinators and head teachers. Table 9 Friedman’s Two-Way ANOVA in the Mean Rank Level of Responses on Teaching Efficiency TEACHING EFFICIENCY 1. Teaching Strategies 2. Uses of Instructional ACADEMIC SELECTED COORDINATOR FACULTY S AND HEAD MEMBERS TEACHERS SELECTED FOURTH YEAR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS εEAN )x) FR εEAN )x) FR εEAN )x) FR 4.54 3 4.16 1 4.42 2 4.14 2 4.37 3 4.09 1 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Materials 3. Mastery of the Subject Matter 4. Presentation Skills 4.43 3 4.28 2 4.17 1 4.21 1.5 4.56 3 4.21 1.5 Ri 9.5 9 5.5 (Sub Problem 3) Is there a significant effect of Classroom Management and Teaching Efficiency to students’ achievement and students’ attainment? Table 10 shows that fourth year teachers’ classroom management competency and teaching efficiency has a significant effect to students achievement based on National Achievement Test (NAT) from 2012 to 2015 there is a1.29 increase on the total average. Table 11reveals the significant effect of fourth year teachers’ classroom management competency and teaching efficiency based on promotional rate with the average increase of 3.15%. The decrease of repetition rate of .61%. The decrease by 1.4% on drop-out rate and the increase of cohort survival rate by 9.83% from 2012-2015. Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4 are bar charts of Promotional Rate, Repetition Rate, Drop-out Rate, and Cohort Survival Rate and Cohort Survival Rate from SY 2012-2015. Table 10 NAT Results by learning areas from year 2012-2015 School Year Fli Eng Sci Math AP TLE/C T Averag e 2012-2013 54.04 48.59 37.18 37.78 56.34 49.34 47.21 2013-2014 61.65 50.83 36.9 36.67 64.22 40.09 48.39 2014-2015 59.34 54.45 35.46 37.85 57.58 46.34 48.50 Fli=Filipino, Eng=English, Sci=Science, Math=Mathematics AP= Araling Panlipunan (Social Studies), TLE/CT =Technology and Livelihood Education Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Table 11 Promotional Rate, Repetition Rate, Drop-out Rate, and Cohort Survival Rate and Cohort Survival Rate from SY 2012-2015. Cohort Survival Promotional Repetition Drop-Out Rate Rate Rate 2012-2013 93.51% 0.75% 4.60% 75.94% 2013-2014 96.35% 0.44% 3.21% 76.74% 2014-2015 96.66% 0.14% 3.20% 85.77% Year Figure 1 Promotional Rate (2012-2015) Rate Figure 2 Repetition Rate (2012-2015) 100% 0.9% 0.75% 96.35% 96.66% 96% 94% 93.51% Repetition Rate (%) Promotional Rate (%) 98% 0.7% 0.5% 0.44% 0.3% 92% 0.14% 0.1% 90% SY 2012-2013 SY 2013-2014 Year SY 2014-2015 SY 2012-2013 SY 2013-2014 Year SY 2014-2015 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Figure 3 Drop-out Rate (2012-2015) 5% Figure 4 Cohort Survival (2014-2015) 90% 4.60% 85.77% 3.21% 3.20% 3% 2% Cohort Survival Rate (%) Drop-Out Rate (%) 4% 85% 80% 75.94% 76.74% 75% 1% 70% 0% SY 2012-2013 SY 2013-2014 Year SY 2014-2015 SY 2012-2013 SY 2013-2014 Year SY 2014-2015 IV. Conclusions and Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following two conclusions were drawn: 1. The respondents’ agreed that fourth year faculty members of δos National High School are competent on classroom management and efficient in teaching. 2. There is no significant difference in the mean rank level of response on classroom management competency and teaching efficiency of fourth faculty members of Los Baños National High School as perceived by the selected students, selected faculty members, academic coordinators and head teachers. Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted. Additionally, towards the competency of classroom management and teaching efficiency among fourth year LBNHS teachers, the following recommendations were given. 1. A research study on the importance of seminars/conferences to teachers for classroom competency and teaching efficiency. 2. A further study on the affectivity of trainings and workshop attended by teachers in teachinglearning activities. 3. A further study on the classroom learning of students at Los Baños National High School may be done. References [1]Adler, S. A. )1996) “On case method and classroom management” Action in Teacher Education vol.18 pp.33-43 [2]Albert, L. (1989) A teacher's guide to cooperative discipline, American Guidance Service ]3[Albert, δ. )1995) “Discipline is it a dirty word?” δearning vol.24 No.2, pp.43-46 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 ]4[Beckham, S. δ. )2008) “εeasuring and Improving the Effectiveness of High School Teachers” Alliance for Excellent Education Issue Brief εarch 2008 [5]Blumenfeld-Jones, D. S. )2004) “Conventional Systems of Classroom Discipline )the patriarchy speaks)” Journal of Educational Thought 30)1) April, pp.5-21 ]6[Brown, B. B., & Steinberg, δ. D. )2000) “Academic Achievement and Social Acceptance” The Education Digest 55 March, pp.57-60 ]7[Burden, P. R.& Fontana, D. )2000) “Classroom Management and Discipline )BOOK REVIEW)” The British Journal of Educational Psychology 66 June, pp.268-70 [8]Lynch, Frank. (1979) Four Readings in Philippine Values (IPC Papers No.2) Ateneo de Manila University press [9]Villanueva Arlan M. (2005) “Classroom εanagement’s Characteristics” Manila Bulletin August 27 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Connecting curriculum learning and cyberart as a pedagogical innovation to facilitate adult learning Lucio Teles, University of Brasilia, Brazil Valentin Oros, University of Poitiers, France Gilberto Lacerda, University of Brasilia, Brazil Abstract Practices of pedagogical innovation in Adult and Professional Education are carried out in the PROEJA-Transiart project to investigate adult learning implemented with media support. Adult learner students produce artistic digital media as a curriculum learning task. Two examples of the innovation process are discussed in the curriculum of history and physics. Seventy students were involved in the production of cyberart in support of curriculum learning and their cyberart works were posted in the research site at wwww.proejatransiarte.ifg.edu.br and shared among participants. The research methodology is the action research (Lewin, 1958; Barbier, 1996), which facilitates change and innovation in social and educational settings. Key words: educational innovation, adult learning, action research, digital art, curriculum learning 1. Introduction With 60 million illiterate or functionally illiterate adults, Brazil urgently needs to deal with this situation. Many Brazilians today do not have the skills needed for the XXI century (Fisher & Frey, 2010). Reduction of illiteracy and completion of high school is thus a major goal to be reached. Many adult learners have completed primary school but are still functionally illiterates. A program offered by the government called PROEJA, or Professional Education for Adult Learners, is designed to support those adults who are in the need to improve their skills in reading and writing while learning curriculum topics, such as geography, history, Portuguese, mathematics, and others. In this way they can study in the evening to complete primary and high school. The project is financed by the Brazilian Educational Research Agency, CAPES, and is one of the so-called OBEDUC initiatives, Observatório da Educação. The PROEJA-Transiart Project is a research project implemented for adult learners located in the city of Ceilândia, near Brasilia. Many of the people who work in Brasilia live in Ceilândia, a nearby city of 650.000 inhabitants. They drive or take a bus or subway to Brasilia, work in the capital during the day and come back home in the evening. This research and innovation project takes place at the High School for Adult Learners. We approached the teachers, explained the objectives of the project and some showed interest to work with us. The research project has been funded twice: the first from 2008 to 2012 and the Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 second from 2014 to 2016 by the government agency CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal do Ensino Superior – Coordination to Train Personnel of Higher Education). 2. The PROEJA-Transiart Project The PROEJA-Transiart Project is a research project conducted by researchers from the Faculty of Education, University of Brasília (UnB), in the satellite city of Ceilandia. The city was founded in 1971 and it has been a place for the settlement of working families, called “candangos”, those who came from several Brazilian regions in the 1950´s to work in the construction of new capital, Brasilia. Ceilândia presents a significant cultural diversity, concentrating a large number of northeasterners. The PROEJA School serves 2826 students. Of these, a total of 2063 are EJA students (EJA refers to the acronyms Educação de Jovens e Adultos), and, in this context they are workers who did not complete primary or high school). The PROEJA-Transiart Project proposes to work with adult learners in the teaching of cyberart as a way to facilitate an aesthetic transition from the adult learners “physical” art forms to “virtual art” art forms with the utilization of digital technology and the learning of aesthetic concepts for new media. Therefore the project has the name of transiart or art of transition (Teles, 2012), as the art that is produced comes in the form of animations, videos, photos, sound, and are related to past art experiences of the group members in the project. The concept of transiart was created to facilitate their interest and the transposition of “physical” art form to a new digital format. Transiart is based in the development of digital art in the social environment of the student. This type of digital art stimulates the development of artistic expression in a transition format, with the employment of technical, educational, and new media tools. With these tools and armed with imagination, creativity, and technical knowledge, individuals and groups can develop critical thinking and reflection, the construction of a collective memory, and a new aesthetic in cyberspace. There are four steps in the production of works of transiart with PROEJA students: 1. Students generate a theme of their interest and which is related to the curriculum; 2. They create a story about the them of their choice and and produce a script for it; 3. The students then plan and develop the selected cyberart project, 4. Finally they post the digital art object in the research site developed for this project, to facilitate the viewing and discussion with students and other Internet navigators. The site has an interface similar to Facebook and the software used to create the page is the latest version of Joomla. The site is at www.proejatransiarte.ifg.edu.br. To address the need for innovation in adult education we proposed the implementation of an action research approach at the PROEJA School for Adult Learners in Ceilandia. To apply the model we developed, a framework that included collaborative work to produce cyberart as related to curriculum learning. Students would also become digitally included while learning and working with course material. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 3. Research questions The following questions were investigated: did students produce transiart? If so, were they able to integrate the transiart with curriculum learning? 4. Methodology The action research methodology (Lewin, 1958; Schein, 1995; Barbier,1996; Thiollent, 2011) was used to collect data from two data sources: participant observation and analysis of students cyberart work. The content of these two data sources was assembled to answer the research questions and to identify relevant issues regarding project objectives. By stimulating students to develop art transpositions from the physical to the virtual environment we were strengthening the epistemological knowledge of art, encouraging creative processes and enhancing artistic expressions in both physical and virtual spaces (Thomas & Seely Brown, 2011). In the educational context, transiart is a way of teaching students how to work creatively with new media for the sake of producing collaborative cyberart to support curriculum learning. [FIGURE 1 goes here] However, the traditional model of classroom learning is still the dominant model used by teachers. We proposed the formation of groups of five to seven students to work collaboratively in some curriculum areas. In order to work with the students we had to talk to the teacher and to get him/her to accept our proposal. Initially we had five teachers willing to work with us (in fact we had more teachers interested but we believed research team’s capabilities to handle yet another front of work could be too onerous on us). The five teachers accepted the proposal and since then we have been working with them and their students in workshops to produce curriculum material in digital art form. Today, besides the five teachers, there are many others who are also interested to be involved in the project. The research team went to the school twice a week, for three to four hours each time. The group of students worked together to select a topic of interest, decided about how to present the topic, wrote a script, and produced the artistic object in one of the four formats: video, music, photo and interactive text. The group then placed the object on the site www.proejatransiarte.ifg.edu.br providing in this way access to all PROEJA School students and Internet users. This process took several weeks from the beginning to conclusion. A major question for the researchers was how to bring the students to create and to initiate an artistic production. Coming up with a theme for the student project is not as simple as Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 a snap of fingers. It requires that the group is in tune with the concept of transiart to develop the work. But how can we know about the artistic interest of each student? The main vehicle for the development of a theme is to stimulate student awareness of their own artistic abilities and further potential. To begin to develop a theme with learners allows us to take a glimpse into his/her own perspectives. This issue is addressed in the transiart workshops. The workshop enables students to know the potential of transiart to address learning issues and to see how art work can be developed in the form of a video clip, an animation, music, or an image. In the first contact with the school community, we explained transiart as a new digital language that is linked to values, cultures and artistic creations and can lead to better understanding of the their own reality. This art form is also a reflection of their values, of what is like being and young and/or adult worker today. We discussed with them about the possibility of creating artistic images and videos related to curriculum topics. Groups generated other themes as well, such as “Prejudice”, "Ed is the guy” and many others, which can be seen in the research site. After the choice of themes and how to link it with the curriculum, each group started to create a script and a story to be the basis for the production of an artistic video. 5. Creating the script for the theme The roadmap of transiart is a transcript of the theme and the story in a way that can be produced and assembled by them, told in images, dialogues, and within the context of digital multimedia. Any script, as all forms of narrative art, always begins with a concept generated by the group. Creativity can be nurtured by observation and interpretation of reality, reading, research, sharing experiences among group members in a collaborative format, brainstorming with colleagues, teachers, and researchers (Garland, Teles & Wang, 1996). Every theme and its associated story require the development of a script that should be summarized in one sentence, which is the main argument or theme. An important element of the script is the definition of characters, i.e., those who are part of the story and their profiles. Character animations can be dolls, mamulengos (wooden dolls), objects, or persons. A way to developing interesting characters is to create a consistent synopsis containing various types of information such as data about their subjects, their habits and customs. Besides the characters, the synopsis must set the scene of action, in which the story takes place, and finally to structure the actions to be later developed. To organize the script of a video clip is to define the ways the characters live the story, or how the story will be told. The final script is the product of a teamwork that requires the writing, correction of mistakes, and the work to display the images, including camera sequences, angles of the photos, handling of the characters, the lighting, the soundtrack, image processing, effects, animations, and other details of production that are essential to a successful outcome for the video. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 6. Planning, developing and posting in the Web site Once the script is concluded, the work follows its course more rapidly. If the technique chosen is stop motion, then students begin to take sequential pictures of the subject for further editing and incorporation of the many pictures (a group took 300 pictures to generate the video “εeeting of Generations”). Then pictures are placed into a stop motion format that is then saved as a video clip. Two examples of Webart videos produced by students as artwork to support curriculum areas are “εeeting of Generations” for the history curriculum, referring to period 1950-1960, of the Brazilian History. The second was “Chapolin”, a comic series from Brazilian TV. The recording of one of the chapters of the TV series was used. Next we discuss these two videos produced by the students. The production of the videoart and its posting in the Web shows that students were able to produce videoclips as an artform, and the content of it relates to curriculum learning for students taking Brazilian History in the PROEJA School for Adult Learners. We will next discuss in more detail the production and the context of these two videos as related to the research questions. 7. Meeting of Generations – History Curriculum Amongst the participating teachers was Oscar, a history teacher. With him, the students were studying the Brazilian history, specifically the 1950-1960 decade, when the Brazilian president Juscelino Kubitschek was elected and asked the architect Oscar Niemeyer to design the plan for a city that would be the new capital of Brazil. Brasilia came to life and became right away an attractive place to go to get a job. Thousands of Brazilians came to the new city from different regions of the country, searching for the dream of finding a job and build a new and more prosperous life. The students decided to produce a video and to post it on the site. The video was called "Meeting of generations" which discusses the 1950-1960 decade from the point of view of those who worked in the construction of the new capital during the decade. There was a student in the history class who was 68 years old, and adult learner who had actually participated in the building of Brasilia working as a mason. [Figure 2 goes here] The script came from the interest of the adult students to tell the story of the city in which they live, mixed with their life stories, reaching the coexistence with youngsters at the PROEJA School for Adult Learners. The process included the selection of images, text, photos and the Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 sequencing of images, the songs which were used in the video, and the background colour. Then came the final production, with the editing, the animation of digital images, and recording documentaries of the life stories of some participants. Aldo, the 68 years old adult learner, is the main protagonist. The first part of the video shows images of the construction of Brasilia, and is black and white. However, as Aldo returns to Brasilia to see the result of his and his fellow workers effort, it turns into colours. [Figure 3 goes here] 8. Chapolin: Physics curriculum In the adaptation of the physics curriculum, students used a well-known comic series of Brazilian TV called Chapolin. The students deleted the original sound of the TV series chapter and introduced their own words and dubbed the video as if it was a discussion amongst members of the cast of Chapolin, about the use of electricity meters. In a humorous way the video teaches what is an electricity meter and how to use it. The content taught is part of the 10th grade physics curriculum. Thus, creativity in transiart can manifest itself in the selected themes and imaginative scripts, storyboards and detailed and inventive ideas, implementation and presentation of artwork created by the group. The creative process is facilitated by active imagination when each group member, driven by memory, intuition, perception, and imagination, work together. The video shows creativity and the ability of students to link the curriculum content to issues that are familiar to them. [Figure 4 goes here] The two videos were well accepted by teachers and students alike and they are now being used as class material by new students at the PROEJA School for Adult Learners to learn curriculum topics in history and physics. [Figure 5 goes here] 10. Conclusions The researchers in the project PROEJA Transiart at the PROEJA school for Adult Learners worked with teachers and students in the production of digital artwork named “transiart”, related to curriculum learning. The objective of the PROEJA-Transiart Project was to develop transiart from the various existing artistic expressions and to stimulate arts and learning. Virtual art in the cyberspace ensures a wider audience through electronic scale, an aesthetic that Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 suggests a new way of viewing that allows for the interaction of the viewer with the art object. Adult learners in this project began to learn the curriculum through development of digital art. Participants enjoyed the learning process of curriculum subjects being discussed through the development of cyberart. Data collected from participant observation using itinerant diaries to record our observations and comments were the sources of information to answer our research questions. One of the main purposes of the PROEJA-Transiart Project is to promote change to respond those social needs expressed by their members, in this case in giving them better access to education, art, and technology. This is why the project is organized as an action research whereby students are not “researched” but are active participants, and researchers are not solely collecting data through questionnaires, surveys, interviews, or other forms, but also active participants in the process of change. As δewin )1958) stated “If you want truly to understand something, try to change it (Lewin, 1958). [Figure 6 goes here] Adult students who began to learn curriculum topics through production of digital art as a way of creating knowledge had a lower dropout rate. As a result of the project, the dropout rate among students participating in the project was reduced from 70% to 30%. Through the research action approach the PROEJA-Transiart Project showed that collaboration and innovative work can motivate students while facilitating the learning process itself. The format of the action research approach allows for participants to include their own life histories and experiences into digital art form. Students have produced 23 video clips (Santos, 2013) which are posted in the site. The majority of them are related to the curriculum while others address issues of social needs being experienced by the adult learners in this project. The content produced is innovative and allows for user interaction and participants can download the video, make new interventions and post it again in the site as a new version. The action research model applied in the PROEJA-Transiart at CEM-03 was an innovation that participants accepted and embraced. The inclusion of collaborative cyberart production to support curriculum learning showed positive results, indicating more motivation in class, from both students and teachers involved in the project. 11. References Barbier, Rene, La Recherche-Action, Open Library: Economica Publisher, 1996, ISBN-10: 2717830626 Fisher, Douglas & Frey, Nancy, in Belanca, James and Bradt, Ron (2010) Preparing Students for Mastery of 21st century skills. In 21st century skills: rethinking how students learn. Bloomington: Solution Tree Press. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Garland, Iris, TELES, Lucio and Xinxun, Wang. Fostering Creativity through CrossDisciplinary Collaboration in an Online Dance Course. Paper presented at the Computer Support for Collaborative Learning Conference, San Francisco, 1999. Lewin, Kurt (1958). Group Decision and Social Change. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Oros, Valentin (2013) Cooperative Learning and its influences on the diminishing the digital divide. Master ingénierie des médias pour l'éducation Faculté des Lettres et Langues – Université de Poitiers Santos, Brian Rovere (2013) O Portal PROEJA-Transiarte como espaço de integração e formaçao coletiva em meio digital. Monografia de conclusão de curso de Pedagogia. Faculade de Educação - UnB Schein, E )1995) ‘Kurt δewin’s Change Theory in the Field and in the Classroom: Notes Toward a εodel of εanaged δearning’, Systems Practice, http://www.solonline.org/res/wp/10006.html Smith, Mark (2001) Kurt Lewin: groups, experiential learning and action research. http://infed.org/mobi/kurt-lewin-groups-experiential-learning-and-action-research/ Accessed 27/07/2014. Thiollent, Michel. Action Research and Participatory Research: An Overview. International Journal of Action Research, Vol 7, Issue 2, 2011, pag 160-175. Venturelli, Suzete and Teles, Lucio (2008). Introdução à Arte Digital. Brasília: Creative Commons Brasil. Availabe at http://www.fe.unb.br/quem-e-quem/docentes/l/lucioteles/minhaspublicacoes/artedigital.pdf/view. Accessed on 18/02/2014. Thomas, Douglas and SEELY BROWN, John, A new culture of learning. Lexington, KY: Douglas and Seely Brown. 2011, ISBN: 13:978-1456458881. Teles, Lucio, Garland, Iris, and Wang, Xinxun. Fostering Creativity Through Cross-Disciplinary Collaboration in an Online Dance Course. Proceedings of the CSCL - Computer Supported Collaborative Learning Conference, 1999, Palo Alto, CA. Teles, Lucio. Introdução a transiarte, in TELES, Lucio; CASTIONI, Remi; HILÁRIO, Renato PROEJA-Transiarte: Construindo novos sentidos para a educação de jovens e adultos trabalhadores. Brasília: Editora Verbena, 2012. 12. Figures Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Figure 1. Transiart working group at the PROEJA School Figure 2. History teacher discusses the research project with his students Figure 3. Aldo walks in front of the National Congress, built in Brasilia in 1959 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Figure 4. Chapolin and the visitor explain the use of an electric meter Figure 5. Mounting the scenario for video production Figure 6. The production of transiar Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 INFLUENCE OF MARITAL CONFLICT ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF MARRIED STUDENTS IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN OSUN STATE, NIGERIA BY DR B. A. ADEYEMI INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE – IFE, OSUN STATE, NIGERIA Abstract The study examined the possible major causes of marital conflict among married students and investigated the extent to which marital pressure influences their academic performance in the selected tertiary institutions in Osun State. It also proffered coping strategies that can be employed by married students to enhance their academic performance. A survey research design was adopted for the study. Two hundred and two (202) respondents were used as sample size. Both primary and secondary data were used for the study. Four research questions emanated and were answered, and two research hypotheses were tested and verified. Data collected were analyzed using frequency and percentages, Relative Significance Index and chi-square statistics. The results among others revealed that financial dissatisfaction formed the highest cause of marital conflict between couples with Relative Significance Index value of 0.882. Also, there was no significant difference between marital conflict and academic performance of married students )χ2=4.311;p<0.05). The study concluded that marital conflict has no significant influence on married students’ academic performance. Keywords: marital conflict, academic performance, married students and tertiary institutions Introduction Tertiary institutions are higher institutions of learning that cater for different categories of learners in such a way that they accommodate both married and unmarried persons. Apart from the fact that some of the students who have not been joined together as husband and wife live like couples both on and off campuses. Although, this is not the focus of this paper, since emphasis is on marriage, reference must be made to it. According to Okpechi and Usani (2015), marriage is a unique commitment between men and women for which they are expected to enjoy love, happiness, provision, protection, procreation, and respect in the society. In the views of Otite & Ogionwo (2006), marriage is not easy to define because of the diversities in the system of marriage throughout the world. Marriage can be defined as a legally or a formally recognized union of a man and a woman as partners in a relationship. Olaitan and Akpan (2003) opined that marriage is the bedrock and foundation of family and society. Marriage is traditionally rooted in an arrangement between families and not essentially between two individuals. Amato & Booth (2004) stated that many other factors such as psycho-social, cultural and economic problems make people to deviate significantly from the objectives of marriage. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Marriage therefore consistently calls for adjustment as the relationship can have either positive or negative influence on the family. The researcher is of the view that, spouse should only look at the positive aspects of each other and overlook the negative part. This will go a long way in minimizing certain level of marital conflicts. Marriage can equally be defined as a process by which two people make their relationship public, official and permanent. It is the joining of two people in a bond that putatively lasts until death but in practice is increasingly cut short by divorce. No marriage is free of conflict. Okpechi (2012) observed that people marry for many reasons, such as love, happiness, companionship and desire to have children. Thus, marriage could be viewed as a socially legitimate union and a contract that brings about a kind of reciprocal rights and obligation between the spouse and future children with much expectations which may be realistic and non realistic. It is a complex phenomena. As good as marriage is, there cannot but be a little misunderstanding between the husband and the wife as they are raised, reared and brought up by different families with different orientations and background. According to Fincham (2003), marital conflict can be on virtually anything. Couples complain of sources of conflict ranging from verbal and physical assault to personal characteristics and behaviour. Perceived inequality in a couple’s division of labour is associated with a tendency for the male to withdraw in response to conflict. Conflict over power is also strongly related to marital dissatisfaction. Spouses’ response to conflict over extra marital affair, problematic drinking, or drug use predict divorce, as do wives’ report of husbands being jealous and spending money foolishly. Greater problem severity increases the likelihood of divorce. Even though it is often not reported to be problem by couples, violence among newlyweds is a prediction of divorce, as is psychological aggression (verbal aggression and nonverbal aggressive behaviour that are not directed at the partner’s body). It could also be noted that the environment in which an individual comes from plays a very significant role in the educational attainment of such an individual. Some people start school at an early age while some start late. As a result of discrepancies in the starting point of education, some ensured that they marry before the completion of the programme in the higher institution of learning. This invariably will affect their academic performance either positively or negatively. Academic performance can be referred to as achievement demonstrated through using scores and grades of examination, test or assignments in an academic setting. The results are used to determine the competence of students in a course over the semesters. Students are expected to engage in activities which may include: manipulation of materials, problems solving, demonstration of practical skills and participating in theoretical work. Fromm )2008) viewed academic performance as an active demonstration that assesses students’ learning, such as; presentation, musical and dramatic performance. When students demonstrate all these, they improve their learning and assimilation. Jegede & Adeyemi (2009) stated that assessment of academic performance has three dimensions, meant for placement, planning and evaluation. The grades obtained from the assessment also help in evaluating the progress of the instructors and the instructional programme to verify whether there is progress in the entire programme. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Marital conflict might influence married students directly or indirectly through its effect on their academics. Emery (2010), Usman (2010) and Dona & Mary (2007) opined that the effects of married students’ conflicts can be more harmful to their academic performance as well as their social behaviours. Margolin (2010) also expressed that high-conflict couples had significantly poorer adjustment in school than those in low-conflict families. Married students from high conflict family have lower self-esteem and greater anxiety. The researcher remarked that the most prevalent type of marital conflicts are mostly based on unmet needs, money, power struggle, sexual problems, infidelity and in-law problems. Marital conflict can lead to mental instability and family disorganization resulting to lots of social ills. Crises and conflicts in marriages produce discord and reduce affection among couples leading to divorce and separation and total dissolution of the family system, with an influence on academic performance. The question that arises from this is that, how could marriage and academics that are two different phenomena operate together without one affecting the other? To give succinct answer to the above question requires critical investigation. The investigator is therefore of the opinion that one of the barriers to successful marriage might be as a result of the combination of both marriage and academics which may bring about conflict. Statement of the Problem Studies in the past such as Reis (1984), Sarwar (1994), Denga (2002), Theowell & Rahe (2003) as well as Okpechi & Usani (2015) had reviewed the importance of a higher institution as a field that require higher intelligence, concentration and commitment that caters for different categories of learners including women. They observed that a good number of married academic women in tertiary institutions do not perform their professional roles effectively as a result of marital stressors. In another study, Mark (2010) research work revealed that married students are faced with combined academic and family responsibilities and each of these activities has to be attended to. These multiple challenges led married students not to attend to lectures. Some of them have jobs, children to care for and there are unmet needs that require urgent attention. Some of these married students come late for lectures, come for test or examinations with babies on their back, submit assignments very late and are irregular in attending lectures. It is against this backdrop that this study seeks to investigate the influence of marital conflict on academic performance of married students in tertiary institutions in Osun State, Nigeria. Objectives of the Study The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of marital conflict on the married students’ academic performance in tertiary institutions in Osun State. The specific objectives are to:identify the possible major causes of common marital conflicts among married students experiencing conflict in some selected higher institutions in Osun State; examine the extent to which marital pressure influence married students’ academic performance in some selected tertiary institutions in Osun State; examine the frequency in which marital conflict influence married students’ academics in some selected tertiary institutions in Osun State; Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 determine the level of frequency in which marital conflict may interfere with married students’ academic performance in some selected tertiary Institutions in Osun State. determine the influence of marital conflicts on academic performance of the married students; and identify the coping strategies employed by married students towards the enhancement of their academic performance in some selected tertiary institutions in Osun state. Research Questions This study answered the following research questions: 1. What are the major possible causes of marital conflicts among married students experiencing conflict in tertiary institutions in Osun State? 2. To what extent does marital pressure influence married students’ academic performance? 3. What are the frequencies in which marital conflict influence the married students’ academic performance? 4. What are the level of frequency in which marital conflict interfere with the married students’ academic performance? 5. What are the coping strategies employed by married students towards their academic performance in tertiary institutions in Osun State? Hypotheses The study tested the following null hypotheses: 1. There is no significant influence of marital pressure on academic performance of married students. 2. There is no significant influence of marital conflict on academics performance of married students. Method Survey research method was used for this study. The target population for the study was 950 which comprised of all married students male and female in tertiary institutions in Osun State who were experiencing marital conflicts. In order to have a comprehensive target population, the researcher used married students in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, with a population of 360, Federal Polytechnic, Ede with a population of 250 and Osun State College of education, Ila Orangun with a population of 340 respectively. All these institutions are located in Osun State of Nigeria. The sample size for this study was 202. In order to have a comprehensive view of the area of research, the researcher used proportionate stratified random sampling technique. This is in line with Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2008) who postulated that sample selection can be best done by randomization in order to make proportional and meaningful representation from the Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 population and to ensure that every element in the population has equal chance of being selected and to avoid bias. In line with that, and for the purpose of this study, the researcher used proportionate stratified random sampling technique in selecting sample from each institution. Therefore, 82 respondents were selected from Obafemi Awolowo University, 50 respondents were selected from Federal Polytechnic, Ede, 70 were selected from Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun respectively. Table 1: Sample size using proportionate stratified random sampling technique S/N NAME OF INSTITUTIONS MARRIED POPULATION STUDENT SAMPLE SIZE 1. Obafemi Awolowo University, 360 82 Ile-Ife 2. Federal Polytechnic Ede 250 50 3. Osun State College of Education, 340 Ila-Orangun 70 Total 202 950 A total of two hundred and two (202) copies of questionnaire were used for this study as sample. This is in line with Cohen, Manion &Morrison (2008), who viewed this method to be useful in order to make proportional and meaningful representation from the population. Stratified sampling ensures that every sub-group of the institutions was represented in the same proportion, based on each institution’s population. The instrument for data collection was a self designed structured questionnaire and academic records of married students from the three institutions in the state. This questionnaire consists of two Sections, “A and B.” A four )4) point rating scale was used as: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD), weighted as 4, 3, 2, 1, respectively. The instrument for data collection was validated through vetting. The reliability of the instrument was also ascertained using cronbach alpha and yielded 0.84 value. The data obtained from the administration of the questionnaires were analyzed using simple percentages, relative significance index and Chi-square statistics. Table 2: Socio-Demographic Information of the Married Students Variable Level Frequency (f) Percentage (%) 18-22 34 16.8 23-27 94 46.5 Age in Years Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Gender Marital Status Educational Qualification in View Current Cumulative Grade Point Average 28-32 68 33.7 33 and above 6 3.0 Total 202 100.0 Male 99 49.0 Female 103 51.0 Total 202 100.0 Married 128 63.4 Commuter marriage 16 7.9 Divorced 40 19.8 Separated 18 8.9 Total 202 100.0 H.N.D. 49 24.3 N.C.E. 73 36.1 B.Sc/BA 80 39.6 Total 202 100.0 4.50 – 5.00 2 1.0 3.50-4.49 55 27.2 2.50-3.49 96 47.5 1.50-2.49 42 20.8 1.00-1.49 7 3.5 Total 202 100.0 Research Question 1: What are the major possible causes of marital conflicts among married students in tertiary institutions in Osun State? Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Table 3: Major Possible Causes of Marital Conflicts among Married Students in Tertiary Institutions in Osun State. Causes of Marital Conflict SA A D SD RSI f % f % f % f % 6 3.0 0.882 1. Financial dissatisfaction 130 64.4 55 27.2 11 5.4 2. Struggling for power control 51 25.2 101 50.0 35 17.3 15 7.4 0.733 3. Unfaithfulness from both parties 71 35.1 92 45.5 34 16.8 5 2.5 0.783 4. Habits that are uncontrollable 63 31.2 86 42.6 31 15.3 22 10.9 0.735 5. Lack of sexual satisfaction 87 43.1 67 33.2 34 16.8 14 6.9 0.781 6. Showing disposal of action openly in 77 front of people 38.1 64 31.7 49 24.3 12 5.9 0.755 7. Choice of a particular sex of children 77 38.1 69 34.2 38 18.8 18 8.9 0.754 Table 3 shows the major possible causes of marital conflicts among married students in tertiary institutions in Osun State. It can be observed that financial dissatisfaction has the highest rating with Relative Significance Index Value of 0.882. In addition, 64.4% and 27.2% of the students respectively strongly agreed and agreed with this factor while 5.4% and 3.0% of them disagreed and strongly disagreed. What is being considered next to financial dissatisfaction is unfaithfulness from both parties. This item has RSI value of 0.783 and 35.1% and 45.5% of the students respectively strongly agreed and agreed with this factor while 16.8% and 2.5% of them disagreed and strongly disagreed. Lack of sexual satisfaction rated third with RSI value of 0.781. While 43.1% and 33.2% of the students respectively strongly agreed and agreed with this factor, 16.8% and 6.9% of them disagreed and strongly disagreed. Next is the act of showing disapproval of action openly in front of people around with RSI value of 0.755. In addition, while 38.1% and 31.7% of the students respectively strongly agreed and agreed with this factor, 24.3% and 5.9% of them disagreed and strongly disagreed. Closely followed is the choice of a particular sex of children with RSI value of 0.754. This cause had 38.1% and 34.2% of the students who strongly agreed and agreed respectively with this factor while 18.8% and 8.9% of them disagreed and strongly disagreed. Others include habits that are uncontrollable with RSI value of 0.735 and 31.2% and 42.6% of the students who strongly agreed and agreed respectively while 15.3% and 10.9% of them disagreed and strongly disagreed; struggling for power control has RSI value of 0.735 while the least cause is identified as couple argument over children’s issues with RSI value of 0.719. Research Question 2: To what extent does marital pressure influence married students’ academic performance? Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 In order to answer this research question, responses to items on Section two of the instrument were scored and subjected to a descriptive analysis. The result is shown in Table 4 Table 4 : Descriptive analysis of students’ responses to items on marital pressure Items SA f depressed A D SD % f % F % F % 10 5.0 1 Always looking resentment and 79 39.1 93 46.0 20 9.9 2 Feeling of disorder and heightened self- 59 esteem 29.2 101 50.0 33 16.3 9 4.5 3 Lack of concentration in academics 56 27.7 102 50.5 28 13.9 16 7.9 4 Transfer of aggression to everybody 58 around 28.7 88 43.6 40 19.8 16 7.9 5 Expressing anger more often 77 38.1 71 35.1 33 16.3 21 10.4 6 Developing inferiority complex and 73 negative attitude towards academics 36.1 76 37.6 41 20.3 12 5.9 In order to determine the extent of marital pressure on academic performance of the married students, individual responses to items were summed together. The mean and standard deviation values of the scores were 18.19 and 3.07 respectively. Students whose scores were 1 standard deviation below the mean score (i.e. 6-15) were adjudged as experiencing a low extent of marital pressure. Those whose scores were within 16 through 21 were adjudged as moderate while those whose scores were 22 and above were adjudged as experiencing a great extent of marital pressure. The result is shown in Table 5 Table 5: Extent of marital pressure influence on married students’ academic performance Extent of Marital Pressure Frequency (f) Percent (%) Low 31 15.3 Moderate 150 74.3 Great 21 10.4 Total 202 100.0 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Table 5 shows the extent of marital pressure influence on married students’ academic performance. It can be observed that 15.3% of the married students indicated that they experienced marital pressure to a low extent. Also, 74.3% of them indicated that they experienced marital pressure to a moderate extent while 10.4% of them indicated that they experienced marital pressure to a great extent. This result suggests that majority of the married student’s experienced marital pressure to a moderate extent. Research Question 3: What are the level of frequency in which marital conflict interfere with the married students’ academic performance? In order to answer this research question, responses to items on Section four of the instrument were scored and subjected to descriptive analysis. The result is shown in Table 6 Table 6: Descriptive analysis of students’ responses to items on interference of marital conflicts Items SA A f % f D SD % F % f % 1 Poor assimilation in the class work 61 30.2 64 31.7 47 23.3 30 14.9 2 Lack of concentration in the class 43 21.3 80 39.6 51 25.2 28 13.9 3 Lack of independence in academic work 48 23.8 77 38.1 57 28.2 20 9.9 4 Distress and withdrawal from school 56 activities 27.7 57 28.2 60 29.7 29 14.4 5 Cumulative grade point average drops 62 (CGPA) 30.7 70 34.7 46 22.8 24 11.9 6 Retardation in academic pursues 59 29.2 78 38.6 38 18.8 27 13.4 7 Poor performance in class activities and 66 assignments 32.7 65 32.2 43 21.3 28 13.9 Also, in order to determine the level or extent of marital conflict interference, individual responses to items were summed together. The mean and standard deviation values of the scores were 19.42 and 4.15 respectively. Students whose scores were 1 standard deviation below the mean score (i.e. 7-15) were adjudged as having low level of marital conflict interference. Those whose scores were within 16 through 23 were adjudged as moderate while those whose scores were 24 and above were adjudged as great level of marital conflict interference. The result is shown in Table 6 Table 7: δevel of εarital Conflict interference in married students’ academic performance Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Extent of Marital Pressure Frequency (f) Percent (%) Low 35 17.3 Moderate 125 61.9 Great 42 20.8 Total 202 100.0 Table 7 shows the level of frequency in which marital conflict interferes with the married students’ academic performance. It can be observed that 17.3% of the married students indicated that marital conflict interferes with their academic performance to a low level. Also, 61.9% of them indicated that marital conflict interferes with their academic performance to a moderate level while 20.8% of them indicated that marital conflict interferes with their academic performance to a great level. This result suggests that more than half of the married students experienced marital conflict interference in the academic performance to a moderate level. Research Question 3: What are the coping strategies employed by married students towards their academic performance in tertiary institutions in Osun State? Table 8: Coping Strategies Employed by Married Students towards their Academic Performance in Tertiary Institutions of Osun State. Causes of Marital Conflict SA A D SD RSI f order to 101 % F % f % f % 50.0 71 35.1 18 8.9 12 5.9 0.823 1. Group discussions in enhance performance 2. Interaction with colleagues 63 31.2 106 52.5 24 11.9 9 4.5 0.776 3. Adjusting to feelings of isolation and 64 challenges ahead 31.7 89 44.1 39 19.3 10 5.0 0.756 4. Working on your mind to attain 78 focus 38.6 79 39.1 28 13.9 17 8.4 0.770 5. Engaging the services of daycare 76 nannies in taking care of little children while attending to lectures, discussion and examinations 37.6 69 34.2 39 19.3 18 8.9 0.751 6. Cheating during test and 68 examination in order to meet up with 33.7 73 36.1 34 16.8 27 13.4 0.725 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 academic demands 7. Paying lecturers or offering self in 64 order to earn marks 31.7 77 38.1 34 16.8 27 13.4 0.720 8. Depending on course mate in both 73 assignment, test and group work 36. 77 38.1 20 9.9 15.8 0.736 32 Table 8 shows the coping strategies employed by married students towards their academic performance in tertiary institutions in Osun State. It can be observed that a group discussion is ranked first with Relative Significance Index Value (RSI) of 0.823. This is followed by interaction with colleagues with RSI value of 0.776. Next among the strategies is working on the mind to attain focus with RSI value of 0.770. Also, adjusting to feeling of isolation and challenges ahead has RSI value of 0.756. Another strategy is the engagement of the services of daycare nannies in taking care of the little children while attending to lectures, discussions, and examinations. This strategy has RSI value of 0.751.Depending on course mate in both assignment, test and group work is ranked next with RSI value of 0.736 while such strategies as cheating during test and examination in order to meet up with academic demands and paying lecturers or offering self in order to earn marks have respective RSI values of 0.725 and 0.720. Research Hypotheses Research Hypothesis 1: There is no significant influence of marital pressure on academic performance of married students. Table 9: Chi-square Analysis of Influence of Marital Pressure on Academic Performance of Married Students. Academic Performance Extent of Marital 2nd Class 2nd Pressure Upper and Class Above Lower Third Class and Total Below Low 13 18 4 35 Moderate 34 59 32 125 Great 10 19 13 42 Total 57 96 49 202 χ2 df P 4.728 4 .316 Table 9 shows the influence of marital pressure on academic performance of married students. It can be observed that a Chi-square test indicated a non-significant influence of marital pressure on academic performance of married students, χ 2 )n = 202) = 4.728, df = 4, p = .316. Since the Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 p-value is less than .05 thresholds, we therefore do not reject the stated null hypothesis. This result concludes that there is no significant influence of marital pressure on academic performance of married students. Research Hypothesis 2: There is no significant influence of marital conflicts on academic performance of married students. Table 10: Chi-square Analysis of Influence of Marital Conflict on Academic Performance of Married Students. Academic Performance Extent of Marital 2nd Class 2nd conflict Upper and Class Above Lower Third Class and Total Below Low 12 11 8 31 Moderate 40 72 38 150 Great 5 13 3 21 Total 57 96 49 202 χ2 df P 4.311 4 .365 Table 10 shows the influence of marital conflicts on academic performance of married students. It can be observed that a Chi-square test indicated a non-significant influence of marital conflicts on academic performance of married students, χ 2 )n = 202) = 4.311, df = 4, p = .365. Since the p-value is less than .05 thresholds, we therefore do not reject the stated null hypothesis. This result concludes that there is no significant influence of marital conflicts on academic performance of married students. Discussion of Major Findings The outcome of the data analysis from the demographic data, answering of research questions and testing of the null research hypothesis were discussed extensively in this section. SECTON 1 The demographic data revealed three tertiary institutions across the state. The zones in Osun State include; Obafemi Awolowo University, Federal Polytechnics, Ede and Osun State College of Education, Ila-Orangun, respectively. Each institution was represented relative to their population. In these institutions, there were married students that were experiencing marital conflict including male and female in different proportions. The study targeted married students who were at their part 2 and above of their study programmes. This was due to the fact that these set of students had their statement of results and knew their Cumulative Grade Point Aggregate (C. G. P .A) results to determine their academic performance. SECTION II Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 This section showed the results from the main questionnaires. On the possible causes of marital conflict, It can be observed that financial dissatisfaction has the highest rating with Relative Significance Index Value of 0.882. In addition, 64.4% and 27.2% of the students respectively strongly agreed and agreed with this factor while 3.0% of them disagreed and strongly disagreed. This observation is in line with the views of Roger, (1997) who said that the most likely causes of marital conflict is as a result of the negative perception each spouse view problems, and that lack of not doing what is expected for each other can trigger conflict. Israel (2003) opined that incompatible sex roles routines of married couples being overloaded with heavy and impossible expectations are seen as reasons that triggered marital conflict. In the analysis of the research on the extent of marital pressure that may affect academic performance, it was revealed that majority of the married students agreed that they developed inferiority complex and negative attitudes towards their academics with a feeling of disorder and heightened self-esteem when there is marital conflict. The observation is in line with Kelly (2000) & Lawrence (2003) who said that only positive attitudes developed by married couples can alleviate any marital conflict. They further said that marital conflict could bring in the family serious interference on the couples due to marital pressure that may affect and retard their progress in the learning process. Victims of marital conflict exhibit aggression, discordance and violence. Christensen (2012) further said that the following are most of the major factors that could lead to marital pressure; feeling of domineering, lack of supporting each other in terms of needs, when there is high rate of violence from relatives of spouses, lack of equal love, lack of reciprocating, when love failed to cover all wrongs, when only one spouse plays all the roles in the home and failure to be submissive, among other reasons. On the frequency in which marital conflict affects married students academics, a sizeable number of the respondents were of the view that academic performance can be affected when spouse failed to sponsor the academics of the other spouse, and that economy factors do cause marital conflict. This statement agreed with Sahana (2010) who postulated that economy factor is one of the major reason couples argued over. On the extent in which conflict can interfere with married students academic performance, it shows that a higher percentage of married students agreed that when conflict in marriage is too tensed, it makes the married students not to concentrate in the class whereby making their cumulative grade point aggregate (C.G.P.A) to drop, with a bad feeling of distress and withdrawal syndromes. On the opinion of respondents on coping strategies employed by married students towards the enhancement of their academic performance, a higher number of respondents agreed that students should develop positive coping strategy to always engage in group discussion in order to enhance their academic performance. This agreed with what Granster (1995) said, that managing the conflict by married students go a long way in improving the academic work of the students. Stephanie (2007) also observed that studying and family obligations are two important domains that are not compatible and that there are usually conflicts between the two domains when not handle with care. The above findings tallied with the views of Adesinanla (2012) and Amos & Manieson (2015) Conclusion Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Based on the outcomes of the study, it could be concluded that academic performance is proportionately related to the overall academic performance of married students in some selected tertiary institutions in Osun State. Also, marital conflict may have influence on academic performance of married students especially when there is financial dissatisfaction and when spouse show disapproval openly by reprimanding the other spouse in the presence of people. Recommendations The following recommendations serve to guide the study and improve the academic performance of married students in some selected State tertiary institutions in Osun State. 1. Spouse should try to sponsor the education of their partners so as to prevent suspending their study programmes. This will equally help them to concentrate in their academics and to obtain good grades. Couple should stop reprimanding each other openly in the presence of people. 2. Couple should not be distracted by any form of marital conflicts; instead they should focus on their academic work, because it will go a long way in enhancing their academic performance. They should be peaceful so as to share their hopes, dreams, goals and success together and think beyond marital conflict in order to attain their goals in life. 3. Couple should develop positive coping strategies to enhance their academic performance. Married students should develop confidence in themselves in order to be focused. References Amato, P.R, & Booth, A. (2004): The Sequences of Parental Divorce and Marital Unhappiness for Adult Well-being.Social Forces, pp. 895-914. Amos, P.M & Manieson, E. (2015): Issues and Challenges confronting Married Women in Tertiary Institutions International Journal of Education, Learning and Development 3 (9) 19 – 27. Adesinanla, O.M. (2012): Marital roles and career among female academic in selected Universities in Lagos and Ogun State. An M.Sc. thesis submitted to the Department of Sociology, College of Development Studies Bowen and University Ota, Ogun State. Chistensen, A. (2012): Dysfunctional Interaction Patterns in Couples. In Noller, P. & Fitspatrick, M. A. (Eds) Perspectives on Marital Interaction Pp. 31-52. Avon, England: Multilingual Matters. Cohen, L. Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2008): Research Methods in Education. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Denga, D. I. (2002): Educational and Social Psychology of Schools and other Social Organization. Calabar: Rapid Publishers. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Dona, R.M. & Mary, J.O.C. (2007): Parental Conflict and Marital Disruption, New York: George Town University. Emery, R.E (2010): Marriage, Divorce and Children’s Adjustment. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Easter brooks, M.A. (1987). Early Family Development: Longitudinal Impact of Marital Quality. (A Paper Presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore, MD). Fincham, F. D. (2003): Marital Conflict: Correlates, structure and context. Current Directions in Psychological Science. New York: Psychology Department, University at Buffalo, Buffalo. Fromm, E. (2008): Man for Himself. New York: Rinehart and Company Inc.Frone, M.R& Rice, R.W. (2012). Work Fami::ly Conflict: The Effect of Job and Family Involvement. Journal of Vocational Behavior 9:45-53. Granster, G. C. (1995): Marriage today: Problem, issues and alternatives. New York: Stochman Publishing Inc. Israel, D.N. (2003): Work Family Conflict among Women and Men Mangers in Dual Career Couple in Israel. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality (3): 371-388. Jegede P. O. & Adeyemi B. A. (2009): Purpose and Methods of Assessment in the Classroom. In O. J. Ehindero, F. O. Aladejana & P. O. Jegede Principles and Practice of Education. A production of the Institute of Education, Faculty of Education O.A.U., Ile-Ife: University Press. Kelly, J. )2000): Children’s Adjustment in Conflicted εarriage and Divorce. A Decade Review of Research Journal of American Association of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39:963-973. Lawrence, S. (2003): The Family, Sex and Marriage. London: Cox and Wyman Ltd. Margolin, G. (2010): Marital Conflict is not Martial Conflict. In Peter, R.D. and MchMahon, R.J. (eds), Social Learning Systems Approaches to Marriage and the Family. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Pp. 103-216. εark, E.C. )2010): εarital Conflict and Children’s Emotional Security Perspective. USA: Notre Dame. Okpechi, P. A. (2012): Influence of Marital Stressors on Role Performance of Married Academic Women in Tertiary Institution in Cross River State, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria. Okpechi, P. A. & Usani, M. O. (2015): Influence of Marital Stressors on Role Performance of Married Academic Women in Tertiary Institutions in Cross River State and Need for Counselling therein. Journal of Education and Practice 6(7) 59 – 65. Olaitan, S.O. & Akpan R (2003): League of Researchers in Nigeria. Child Development and Family Life Education. Bauchi Otitie, O & Ogionwo, W. (2006): An Introduction to Sociological Studies. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books Nigeria Plc pg. 52. Reis, M. (1984): Professional Ethnics. Journal of Higher Education, 53, 307-317. Rogers, J. (1997): Matured Women and Higher Education in West Africa. 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Dissertation of the Faculty of Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 UTILIZATION AND CHALLENGES OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND ADMINISTRATIVE JOB PERFORMANCE IN ENUGU STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS BEING A PAPER PRESENTED BY PROF. NKECHI P. IKEDIUGWU DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND POLICY FACULTY OF EDUCATION NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA. PHONE NO: 08033105894 DURING INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOCIAL SCIENCE, LITERATURE (ICSLE 2016) AT FLORA GRAND HOTEL DUBAI TH ON 9- 10 SEPTEMBER 2016 Abstract The paper examined the utilization and challenges of information communication technology and administrative job performance in Enugu State Secondary Schools of Nigeria. Three Research questions and two hypothesis guided the study. The Survey research design was used. The sample of the study was two hundred and seventeen principals and thirty three administrative personnel in Enugu State Secondary Schools. A Forty item questionnaire titled Utilization and challenges of information communication technology for administrative job performance in Enugu State )UCICTA JP) was used for data collection. The result from the findings revealed that there is a significant relationship between utilization of internet and personal job performance. The study also discovered that there are many challenges confronting the utilization of ICT among which are lack of funds, inadequate instructional and storage facilities, lack of internet facilities and power supply. It was recommended among other things that government as a matter of urgency should allocate more funds for purchase of ICT facilities. Training, seminars and workshops should be organized to make teachers and other staff computer literate. INTRODUCTION The Education system in Nigeria runs from primary, secondary to tertiary levels. The focus of this study is on secondary education. Secondary education as defined by the federal government of Nigeria )FGN 2004) is education children receive after primary education and before tertiary stage. It is an education that runs for a period of )6) six years given in two stages of upper basic and senior secondary each being of three years duration. Every secondary school is led by an administrator who is also called the Principal. Principalship therefore involves the control of human and material resources of the school. The principal is the administrative head and leader of instruction in the school organization. Ogunu )2000) maintained that the principal performs the following roles – providing overall leadership, co-ordination, supervision, control, organization, welfare services, motivation and evaluation. All these activities of the principal would encourage the improvement of educational program. The administrative job performance of principals are becoming much more demanding Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 and complex. These complexities are arising from numerous activities ranging from staff and student personnel administration in terms of enrolment, population mobility and social problems. Others are academic procedures, conflict resolution communication within and outside the school and other administrative functions )Anyanwu 2015). For effective performance of administrative job the computer system and its allied accessories and technologies have come into play )Ikedigwu and Ezugbor 2016). To strengthen this the federal government of Nigeria )2004) stated that “in recognition of the prominent role of information and communication technology in advancing knowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning in modern world, there is urgent need to integrate information and communication technology into education in Nigeria. The federal government of Nigeria launched the National policy on computer literacy at primary, secondary and tertiary level in 1988. The general aim of the launching was for the computer to transform the school system and increase merger between the computer technology and communication in the education system. ICT, as a product of scientific innovation and invention facilitates and enables the assessing and management of information using a computer system over a network connections for the purposes of communication. The components of ICT include the network provision computer hard and softwares, electronic media, storage devices )Agina 2006). It has been observed that these ICT facilities are not effectively utilized for job performance as it appear that some vital areas of application is still not being used for the improvement of performance. Job performance is a work related activities expected of an employee to carry out and how well those activities are executed. εany administrations assess the job performance of each employee on annual or quantity basis in other to help them identify suggested area for improvement. Job performance of administrative personnel include preparation of minutes, record keeping, students registration, correspondences etc. How has ICT been utilized to perform the above functions in Enugu State is the problem of this study. There are indications that there poor administrative personnel job performance as seen in poor preparation of minutes that make reading and comprehension of minutes cumbersome. Records are kept on paper files which make information difficult to retrieve and this lengthens bureaucracy. There is delay in sending correspondences due to some limitations of human factor which can be corrected through the use of ICT. The overall effect of poor job performance is being reflected on the entire school performance. Given this background, the problem of this study therefore is to examine how the utilization of ICT may relate with administrative job performance in Enugu state secondary schools. What are the challenges confronting the use of ICT in Enugu State Secondary Schools Purpose of the study The purpose of the study are1. To examine whether utilization of computer has some relationship with administrative job personnel job performance in terms of students registration, records keeping preparation of minutes and correspondence. 2. To find out whether utilization of internet has any relationship within administrative job performance in terms of students registration, record keeping preparation of minutes and correspondence Research Questions: Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 The following Research Questions guided the study: 1. How does utilization of computer relate with administrative job performance in terms of preparation of minutes, record keeping, correspondence and students registration. 2. What relationship exist between utilization of internet and administrative personnel job performance in terms of preparation of minutes, record keeping, correspondences and students registration. 3. What are the challenges confronting the use of ICT in Enugu State secondary schools. Research Hypothesis Two hypothesis guided the study:1. There is no significant relationship between the utilization of computer and administrative personnel job performance in terms of preparation of minutes, record keeping, correspondences and student registration. 2. There is no significant relationship between the utilization of internet and administrative personnel performance in terms of preparation of minutes record keeping, correspondences and students registration. εethod Research Design The research design adopted for the study was co-relational survey design. Area of the study: The study was carried out in Enugu State: The state shares boundaries with Abia State and Imo State to the South, Anambra State to the West, Benue State to the North east, Kogi State to the South West and Ebonyi State to the east. Population of the study The population of the study consisted 258 principals in 258 public secondary schools on Enugu State and 93 Administrative staff personnel. Sample and Sampling Technique Simple random sampling was adopted to select schools who has administrative personnel: They were 93 in number. Therefore the 93 administrative personnel were selected. Administrative personnel in this study are those persons whom the principals choose, to work with in carrying out specific task, like preparation of minutes, record keeping, correspondences, students registration and some other tasks. Some of the schools in Enugu State do not have administrative personnel. Out of 258 principal 217 were sampled. Instrument for data collection A researcher structured questionnaire titled utilization and challenges of information and communication technology and administrative job performance questionnaire )UIC TAJPQ) was used. The instrument was divided into 3 sections A, B and C. Section A had 12 items that described the utilization of computer and internet. Section B had 18 items that described Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 preparation of minutes. Section C had 10 items that described the challenges confronting the use of ICT in Enugu State Secondary School. The total number contained in the instrument was 40 items. Reliability of the Instrument The instrument was subjected to reliability testing. The result obtained ranged from 0.644 to 0.825. Which shows that instrument was reliable. Results Research Question One/ Hypothesis one There is no significant relationship between utilization of computer and administrative personnel job performance in terms of preparation of minutes record keeping, correspondence, and students registration. Table 1 Pearson’s Product εoment Correlation Analysis of relationship between utilization of computer and job performance of administrative personnel. n = 93 X Y 1,643 X2 Variables Y2 XY r rxy Utilization of Computer )X) 29,431 Preparation of εinutes )Y1) 1,622 28,670 28,921 0.677 8.77* Record Keeping )Y2) 1,614 28,334 28,792 0.769 11.48* Correspondences)Y3) 1,618 28,562 28,884 0.733 10.27* Students’ Registration )Y4) 1,596 27,724 28,449 0.688 9.01* p<.05; df = 91; critical t = 1.98 rxy = transformed r value The independent variable was utilization of computer while the dependent variable was administrative personal job performance. The statistical analysis was done using pearson product moment correlation. The results from the table 1 above shows that the calculated correlation values of 0.677, 0.769, 0.733 and 0.688 were further tested for significance level and the calculated t value of 8.77, 11. 48 10.27 and 9.01 were greater than the critical t-value of 1.98 when tested at .05 level of significance with 91 degree of freedom. Thus the null hypothesis was rejected. There is therefore a significant relationship between utilization of computer and administrative personnel job performance. Research Question two/Hypothesis two There is no significant relationship between utilization of internet and administrative job performance in terms of preparation of minutes, record keeping, correspondence and students registration. TABδE II: Pearson’s Product εoment Correlation analysis of relationship between utilization of internet and job performance of administrative personnel X X2 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Variables Utilization of internet )X) Preparation of εinutes )Y1) Record keeping )Y2) Correspondence )Y3) Students’ Registration )Y4) p<05; df=91; critical t = 1.98 Rxy = transformed r values. 1,622 1,614 1,618 1,596 Y Y2 1,609 28,209 28,670 28,325 0.698 28,334 28,227 0.759 28,562 28,275 0.720 27,724 27,857 0.693 XY r rxy 9.32* 11.17* 9.91* 9.17* The independent variable was utilization of internet while dependent variable was administrative personnel job performance. Pearson Product moment correlation was used to analyze the data obtained from the respondents. The scores obtained from the utilization of internet obtained and administrative personnel were correlated with their job performance. The results of the analysis are shown in table 2 above. The result of the analysis reveals that the calculated r-values of 0.698, 0.759, 0.720 and 0.693 were further tested for significance with 91 degree of freedom. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected and alternative hypotheses was retained. There is therefore a significant relationship between utilization of internet and administrative personnel job preference. Research Question3 What are the challenges confronting the use of ICT in Enugu state Secondary School. Percentages of principals who responded to challenges confronting the use of ICT in Enugu state. Table3; From table three above 144 )66.4%) are of the opinion that lack of funds is a challenge while 73 )33.6) principals said that it is not. In item no 2, 143 S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Challenges confronting the use of ICT in Enugu State δack of funds δack of Access Roads δack of computer experts No training for teachers δack of storage facilities δack of interest among Principals and teachers Poor electricity supply Inadequate instructional Facilities δack of internet access Insecurity in the system No of Principal who say yes 144 143 194 131 196 195 % % 66.4 65.9 89.4 10.4 90.3 89.9 No of Principal Who say yes 73 74 23 86 21 22 33.6 34.1 10.6 39.6 9.7 10.1 No of Principal Who say yes 217 217 217 217 217 217 197 204 90.8 94.0 20 13 9.2 6.0 217 217 196 176 90.3 21 81.1% 41 9.7 81.9 217 217 )6.59%) principals mention that lack of access is a challenge while 74 )34.1%) principals disagree. For lack of computer experts, 194 )89.4) principals agreed while 23. )10.6) principals disagreed. Item 4 131 )60.4%) principals agreed that no training for teachers is a challenge while 86 )39.6%) disagree that it is challenge. For lack of storage facilities and lack of interest among principals and teachers 195 )89.9%) and 197 )90. 8%) respectively agreed while 22 )10.%) and Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 20 )9.2%) principals disagreed respectively. For item no 7 poor electricity supply 197 )90.8) principals agreed that it is challenge while 20 )9.2%) disagreed that it is a challenge. for item no 8 204 )94. 0%) principals are of the opinion that inadequate instructional facilities is a challenge while 13 )6.0%) said that it is not. item no 9, lack of internet access, 196 )90.3%) principals agreed that it is a challenge while 21 )9.7%)disagreed. finally item no 10, 176 )81.%)principal of the principals agree that insecurity in the system is a challenge while 41 )81.%) principals disagree that it is not a challenge. Discussion Utilization of computer and administrative job performance in terms of preparation of minutes, record keeping correspondence and student registration. The results of hypothesis one revealed that utilization of computer significantly relate to administrative personnel job performance. This suggest that computer usage is very paramount for effective personnel job performance. There can be no meaningful achievement in this era of modernization where analogue has paved way for digitalization of the entire system. This finding is a consonance with the findings of Jacob )2002) who found out that a significant relationship exist between academic staff use of computer and their job performance. This study is also in consonance with Obi )2010) in a study on utilization of ICT in enhancing the quality of guidance and counseling programme in the state secondary schools. He found out that provision of computer and ICT equipment in secondary schools have impacted on the administration and helped in meeting up with current trend in education. Computer provides different innovation opportunities for administrative personnel in enhancing their job performance. All stake holders must therefore embrace it. Utilization of Internet and administrative personnel job performance In terms of preparation of minutes, record keeping, correspondence, and student registration. As must be acknowledged, this findings is an indication that there feelings, experiences and attitude of administrative personnel towards the use of internet in the performance of tasks could hinder or promote the over all performance of public secondary schools and increases productivity depending on how well it is being used. This is so because the significant relationship implies that administrative personnel have experience and positive attitude toward internet. This finding is in agreement with the findings of Anyira )2011) who studied accessibility and use of internet services in Western Delta University Asaba and found out that a significant relationship exist between internet usage and job performance and that poor performance that existed in some respondent was due to ineffective infrastructure, poor distribution of services which resulted in lack of motivation. This finding also conform the findings of Chiwepa )2003) who studies the use of internet by teaching staff of the University of Zambia and found a positive relationship between internet and their job performance. The finding also corroborate the findings of Jagboro )2003) who conducted a study on Internet usage in Nigeria Universities and found positive relationship between Internet Usage and task performance. However to reap a sustenance benefit of using internet for job performance, there is need for change of attitude of administrative personnel and schools authority. They should also ensure that regular training are given to staff on how to use internet. Challenges confronting the use of ICT in Enugu State εany challenges are confronting the use of ICT in Enugu state secondary schools. These challenges Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 include lack of funds, lack of access roads, lack of computer experts, No training of teachers, lack of storage facilities, lack of interest among the principals and teachers, inadequate instructional facilities, lack of internet access and insecurity in the system. The importance of ICT can never be overemphasized. ICT has the potential of not only introducing new teaching and learning practices, but also acting as a catalyst to revolutionize the education system. ICT can empower teachers, principals and learners and promote the growth of skills necessary for the 21st Century. The reason for these challenges on utilization of ICT in schools have been enumerated by εbipon )2000) to include the following:εany Nigeria schools are in rural communities where there are no electricity so they can not use computer. Those in urban schools may not be able to buy computers because computers are costly. εany principals and staff in Nigeria schools are computer illiterate. On the area of training, Alabi )2006) found that some schools are introducing computers into their classroom but are offering no training to their teachers on how to use them effectively; consequently availability of ICT without being translated into desired goals is meaningless. Recommendations 1. ICT training and orientation should be organized for administrative personnel at regular intervals to enable them improve in their ICT utilization. 2. School management board as a matter of urgency should post administrative personnel to all the secondary schools in Enugu State Instead of allowing the Principals alone to be doing all administrative jobs. 3. The school authorities should create an enabling environment like constant power supply so as to promote regular ICT usage. 4. εore funds should be provided to school to enable them buy computers and other ICT facilities. 5. School authorities should make proper arrangement for storing these ICT facilities. 6. ICT is an innovation that has come to stay, Educational Administrators and other stakeholders in Education should strive to promote the use of ICT in Nigeria schools. This will promote effective job performance and also increase productivity. 7. Government must ensure that there is adequate security in the system. 8. Government should also endeavour to provide, storage and instructional facilities. 9. Training, seminars and workshops should be organized to train teachers/principals on the use of ICT. 10. Alternative source of Power supply should be provided for those schools in the rural schools. Conclusion The prevalence and rapid development of information and communication technologies )ICT) has transformed human society from the jet age to knowledge age. ICT is becoming a national part of man’s daily life All stakeholders in Education, students, teachers, principals, parents, government and general public must embibe and encourage the use of ICT to enable Nigeria compete favourably globally. References Anyanwu Jude A. )2015) Comparative study of Principals’ ICT competencies for management of information system in public and private secondary schools in Anambra state unpublished med Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 thesis. Alabi T.A. )2006) The us of computer in educational management in J.B Babalola A.O. Ayeni, S.O. Adedeji, A.A. Suleiman, ε.O. Arikewuyo )Eds Educational εanagement thoughts and practice Ibadan’s Awemerk Industries Printers. Agina ε.C. )2006) Assessment of the impact of ICT in the developing institutions. A report of an investigation conducted by ICT Professionals held at Owerri. Anyira I.E. )2011) Internet Services in Nigeria Provate Universities: A case study of Western Delta University Oghera, Retrieved 2nd February-2011 htm2015fromhttp:wwwudaiho.edu/moblin/i.pp Ikediugwu N.P. & Ezeugbor C. )2016) Educational Policy & Information Communication Technology in Nigeria Enugu: Geralds Publishers. Chinwepa V. )2003) The use of internet by teaching staff University of Zambia Afr. J. Archives Int. Sc. 13 )2) 119-132 Federal Government of Nigeria )2004) National Policy an Education Abuja: Nerdc press. Jagboro K.O. )2004) A study of Internet Usage in Nigeria Universities. A case study of Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife Nigeria Uniesco Pens. Joseph K.F. )2002) Internet use by students of Faculty Science in two Nigeria Universities εbipom, ε.A. )2000) In-school staff development Strategies for effective Universal Basic Education )UBE) Curriculum delivery: A paper presented at the 15th annual academy congress of Nigeria Academy of Education held in UNIBEN on 23rd εarch Obi I. )2010) Utilization of Information Technology )ICT) in enhancing the quality of guidance and counseling program in the state secondary schools. In Anambra State. Journal of Educational Administration and Planning 1)1) 221-231 Oguike N.A. )2010) εanagement of Information System: A functional Approach Ibadan: εacεillan Publishers. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Employee Turnover and Correlates as Influencers of Job Satisfaction among Hospitality Employees in Osun State, Nigeria Tejumade O. Siyanbola, Obafemi Awolowo University, NIGERIA Abstract Although studies on employee turnover )E-Turnover) are commonplace in management, particularly Human Resource εanagement )HRε) literature, many of those studies explored the subject-matter as an effect rather than a cause phenomenon. As a way of bridging the noticeable gap in literature, this paper assessed how E-Turnover and issues associated with it impact employee job satisfaction with the intent to comprehend how best to manage the phenomenon and make it more functional to the organisation. To achieve the broad goal and specific objectives of the study, quantitative techniques were adopted at both data collection and analysis levels. The collected data from 109 non-managerial hospitality sector employees was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings revealed that E-Turnover ]job change habit[ )r = .400), delay in salary payment )r = .218), family-related issues )r = .284) and delayed promotion )r = .277) in that order were the most significantly correlated to employee job satisfaction. εore in-depth analysis indicated that job security )β = .679), delayed promotion )β = .572), inadequate welfare package )β = .524) and intent to leave due to poor relationship with supervisor )β = .522) all at )p < 0.05) were respectively the most fundamental issues to explaining employee job satisfaction. Apart from those four, language barrier )β = .580), delayed salary payment )β = .497), job change habit )β = .654), non-conducive cultural environment )β = .456) and family-related issues impacting performance )β = .326) all at )p < 0.05) in that order were also key to explaining job satisfaction among business and other organisational employees. The paper concluded by indicating that E-Turnover, intent-to-exit and other co-variants all influence whether employees become satisfied at work or not. Key Words: Employee Turnover, Job Satisfaction, Hospitality, Employees, Nigeria Introduction While the occurrence of some degree of Employee Turnover )E-Turnover) phenomenon should be welcomed by organisations due to the opportunities it presents to innovate and bring in new recruits with potentially novel ideas to develop organisations further )εeier and Hicklin, 2012; Ingersol and Smith, 2003), an excessively high level may be harmful to businesses )Glebeek and Bax, 2004). In terms of the benefit, εeier and Hicklin )2012) opine that an organisation where the cost of replacing underperforming employees can be compensated for by more highly performing employees, E-Turnover benefits that organisation. Used interchangeably with constructs like ‘labour turnover’, E-Turnover is defined as …”the rate at which people leave an organisation” )Armstrong, 2011, p. 497). The attention that research into turnover has enjoyed over the years is largely due to its significance in terms of the consequesnces and cost that accompany its occurrence in business organisations and the like. This significance has meant that much of the focus by researchers and practitioners were on the causes and sources of E-Turnover )Ongori, 2007). To that end, in most of the numerous studies, E-Turnover “…has been treated as a dependent variable )DV) and not as an independent one” )Glebeek and Bax, 2004, p. 277). Glebeek and Bax )2004) express surprise at the shortage of studies that explore E-Turnover Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 effects on organisation, in other words as an independent variable )IV), particularly because the surge in focus on turnover research was due to the assumed impact of turnover on organisational effectiveness )Hutchinson et al, 1997). In consideration of the apparent shortage of studies that assess E-Turnover as a variable that impact other aspects of organisational dynamics, this paper appraises not only employee turnover, but also its correlates as influencers of job satisfaction among employees of the hospitality sector in a state in Southwestern zone of Nigeria. εore specifically, the paper delves into how E-Turnover impact other employees’ job satisfaction when it occurs in an organisation, with a view to highlighting the aggregated significance of the effects of all factors combined while also identifying the role each of the factors play in determining whether employees are satisfied on the job or not. An Overview of Employee-Turnover in Hospitality Organisations As part of the ongoing knowledge development about Employee-Turnover research, Zopiatis et al. )2014) report a negative correlation between affective organisational commitment, extrinsic job satisfaction and turnover intention among hotel employees in Cyprus. Generally, turnover intent is connected to actual exits of employees )εcCarthy et al., 2007). However, the level of job satisfaction can be influenced by the stress level of individual employees particularly as far as gender is concerned. Kim et al. )2009) assert that the effect of role stress is stronger among female hotel employees compared to male; this indicates that in making efforts to combat stress among hospitality employees, and hotels in particular, the female gender need a more targeted policy being the more vulnerable group. Albattat and Som )2013) connect worsening E-Turnover directly to the result of dissatisfaction among hotel employees in εalaysian hospitality industry. Although the study highlights the level of turnover crises in εalaysia, it also indicates employee turnover as a dependent variable, signaling the significance of the current study that investigated E-Turnover as an independent variable. In summary, the dearth in studies that evaluate E-Turnover as an independent variable underscores the importance of this research that treat E-Turnover as such. The next section provides explanation on the framework adopted in the research. Conceptual framework Due to the unique and dual nature of the E-Turnover concept the occurrence of which can be either positive or negative for any organisation particularly the business-type organisation, this paper is anchored on the research by Ingersol and Smith )2003) in which turnover is perceived as either a functional or dysfunctional type. According to the authors, it is not always the case that employee turnover occurrence in an organisation is bad, it will depend on whether the effects it bring on the organisation or business is positive )functional turnover) or negative )dysfunctional turnover). As described in the introductory section, the notion of E-Turnover functionality depicted by Ingersol and Smith )2003) classify employee exits/turnover as functional when its occurrence provides management of an organisation with the opportunity to replace employees who have left with those who might be ‘better performers’; the latter form of employees have the potential to inject fresh ideas into the organisation and improve employees’ efficiency and organisational effectiveness. However, when replacement employees fail to improve organisational performance, the Ingersol and Smith’s )2003) tag such turnover as dysfunctional due to its negative effects. Adopting the classification by Ingersol and Smith is justifiable since this paper explores the effects of the ETurnover phenomenon, the intent to turnover and the correlates of the phenomenon on job Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 satisfaction of employees of the hospitality sector in the identified state within Nigeria. One may argue that since the turnover classification within the study by Ingersol and Smith )2003) appears to be based on the form of effects that turnover phenomenon unleashes on the organisation/business, it is appropriate to apply it in the context of this paper that is also considering how the concept impacts the satisfaction of the employees sampled. Essentially, even when turnover occurs, it may boost the confidence of the remaining employees if the exited employees are not of high value to the organisation and their existence was deemed inimical to the morale of other employees when they were still with the organisation. In such situation, turnover will likely be welcomed by management and could potentially improve the remaining employees’ morale while also giving room for better people to be recruited; that would be functional E-Turnover. By implication, Ingersol and Smith’s )2003) classification is an appropriate conceptual framework to situate this paper within. The part that follows presents the methodology employed. εethodology For the purpose of this research, quantitative methodology was adopted for data collection and analysis. Data collection was done through structured questionnaire administration; the analysis was carried out using SPSS 21. 173 questionnaire copies were distributed to non-managerial hotels’ employees, events management and tourism firms to elicit information from the population, although the largest proportion of respondents were from the hotel sub-sector because hotels are dominant within the hospitality industry in the state targeted for data collection. Out of the 173 questionnaires, 131 employees responded making a total of 76% response rate. However, out of the 141, only 109 were in usable form, that is 63% of the total number originally sent out. Prior to detailed analysis, the reliability of the constructs that addressed the broad goal and specific objectives of the research was tested to determine whether or not the instrument’s constructs measured what they were expected to measure. The reliability statistics resulted in Cronbach alpha coefficient of .747 for standardised items. This indicates that the questionnaire items were reliable in measuring what they were expected to measure given that .70 is the standard minimum expected )George and εallery, 2003) alpha coefficient for research purposes. With such results and foundation, further analyses were carried out including correlation between the independent variables to test for multicollinearity, and regression analysis to determine the extent to which the overall model explained employee job satisfaction. In addition, the specific effect size of each of the explanatory variables in the model was evaluated. For the regression analysis, Categorical Regression )CATREG) was conducted rather than the standard linear regression because the dependent and independent variables were of mixed nature. While the dependent variable )job satisfaction) was dichotomous, the independent variables were mostly ranked. CATREG allow variables of mixed properties to be transformed to quantifiable items to assist further in-depth analysis )Starkweather and Herrington, 2012). In the following part of the paper, the results are explained. Findings The results are presented in two stages: the first explains and justifies the need for correlation analysis, and the second presents the findings from the Categorical Regression analysis. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Correlation analyses Correlation was conducted between the independent variables to determine whether multicollinearity existed between any of the paired independent variables. If that occurred, then, any of the pairs may be excluded from further analysis leaving only one of the two to represent the pair. The implication is that one of the pairs would be redundant within the regression model anyway; so no point in including such. The result of the multicollinearity test indicated that it was not really an issue within the model as most of the pairs were either in the range .3, just above or below and this is quite low, justifying their inclusion in further analysis. As part of the first stage, correlation was also carried out between the dependent variable )DV, i.e. job satisfaction) all 11 independent variables )IVs) for an a priori knowledge of the level of relationship between the former and each of the latter. This provided better insight into the results of the regression analysis, particularly on whether job satisfaction would only be explained by those variables that correlated significantly with it originally or whether others would be key within the whole regression model. The results highlighted the importance of regression analysis over ordinary correlation coefficient in data analysis. This is highlighted further in the section that discusses inferential statistics results )regression analysis). The results of the pairwise correlation analysis of the independent variables against the DV showed that four of the IVs significantly correlated with job satisfaction )DV); they are E-Turnover ]employees’ job change habit[ )r = .400), salary delay )r = .218), family-related issues )r = .284) and delayed promotion )r = .277). This result shows that the four constructs had the strongest connection to employee job satisfaction at this level of analysis. The section that follows evaluate the results and forms stage two of the analysis. Regression analyses Stage two of the analysis process provides insight into the output of the categorical regression analysis )CATREG) as indicated in tables 1-4. Table 1 summarises the results of the model that regressed job satisfaction over 11 independent variables. After the results were adjusted for errors, the adjusted R2 was .678; this means the model that the IVs loaded into explained 67.8% of any change that occurred in job satisfaction )IV) within the model. This is significantly high given that the figure is much larger than the average of .5. The implication here is that, largely, the 11 independent variables )including E-Turnover and its correlates) are collectively strong enough to explain more than two-thirds of changes that occur in job satisfaction. In table 2, the Analysis of Variance )ANOVA) was significant at p = .000. By interpretation, when the variance in job satisfaction was analysed based on whether E-Turnover, intent-to-leave and other covariants )IVs) were strong enough to explain the variation in employees being satisfied in their jobs or otherwise, findings indicated that the latter explicated the former very strongly. Put simply, it means that at 95% confidence level, the result will emerge at p = .000, p < 0.05 margin of error allowed. At this level of the analysis, however, there was still no clear-cut indication of which of the independent variables were the strongest and most important in the variance explained in job satisfaction. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Table 1: εodel Summary for regressing employee job satisfaction over employee turnover and other independent variables εultiple R R Square Adjusted R Square Apparent Prediction Error .892 .796 .678 .204 Source: Extracted from SPSS Output for Employees’ Data Dependent Variable: Are you satisfied with your present job? Predictors: Have you ever change jobs? Job security lowers my morale, Salary delay creates my distrust in the organisation, Family issues affect my performance in the organisation, δeaving too far from my workplace is highly discouraging, Issues with colleagues do not bring the best out of me, Delayed promotion at my workplace discourages me, Non-conducive cultural environment negatively affects my performance, δanguage barrier negatively impacts my confident level, I will like to leave the organisation because of poor relationship with my supervisor, Inadequate welfare package may force me to leave the organisation. Table 2: ANOVA table showing the significance of the regression model in explaining employee job satisfaction Sum of Squares DF εean Square F Sig. Regression 87.571 40 2.189 6.735 .000 Residual 22.429 69 .325 Total 110.000 109 Source: Extracted from SPSS Output for Employees’ Data Dependent Variable: Are you satisfied with your present job? Predictors: Have you ever change jobs? Job security lowers my morale, Salary delay creates my distrust in the organization, Family issues affect my performance in the organization, δeaving too far from my workplace is highly discouraging, Issues with colleagues do not bring the best out of me, Delayed promotion at my workplace discourages me, Non-conducive cultural environment negatively affects my performance, δanguage barrier negatively impacts my confident level, I will like to leave the organisation because of poor relationship with my supervisor, Inadequate welfare package may force me to leave the organisation. As part of the necessary steps before in-depth analysis involving regression, table 3 is an indication of the level of tolerance of each of the IVs within the model. Tolerance is an indication of the level of explanatory power of an independent variable that cannot be explained by other independent variables within the model. Any IV with tolerance level of less than .1 is insignificant within the regression model )UCδA, 2013); this means that such variable has little impact in whatever occur within the model. However, from table 4, all of the IVs had important role to play in the model because, none of them had a tolerance of less than the acceptable level of .1; in fact, the least value was .513 even after the constructs were transformed to quantifiable values for further analysis. Once the IVs that had key role to play were identified in the model, table 4 provided better clarification on which constructs were the most significant in explaining what became of job satisfaction level in the hospitality businesses sampled. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Findings showed that out of the 11 potential explanatory variables, 9 of them were robust enough to explain any variation in job satisfaction that occurred within the model. Judging by their Beta Coefficients )β) and p values in ascending order of the most significant construct first, the following were key to understanding whether or not employees were satisfied in their jobs: job security at β = .679, p = .000 )p < 0.05), delayed promotion at β = .572, p = .000 )p < 0.05), inadequate welfare package at β = .524, p = .000 )p < 0.05) and intent to leave due to poor relationship with supervisor at β = .522, p = .000, )p < 0.05). These were followed by language barrier that eroded employee confidence at β = .580, p = .001 )p < 0.05) and delay in salary payment at β = .497, p = .001 )p < 0.05). The next two were job change habit β = .654, p = .003 )p < 0.05) and non-conducive cultural environment that impacted performance at β = .456, p = .003 )p < 0.05), and the last was family-related issues impacting performance at β = .326, p = .006 )p < 0.05). While the Beta Coefficient )β) of each of the explanatory variables )IVs) explain the degree of influence it exerts on the criterion variable )DV), p value determines the level of significance that such variable has on the dependent variable )criterion). On the whole, job security, delayed promotion, inadequate welfare package and intent to leave due to poor relationship with supervisor in that order were the most significant in comprehending employees’ job satisfaction, while family-related issues were the least important of the nine most significant variables; nonetheless, issues of family nature were still more important than the remaining two that had almost insignificant bearing on employees job satisfaction. Table 3: Correlations and Tolerance inclusion in the regression model Correlations Zero- Partial Order Have you ever change .400 .761 jobs? Job security lowers my .101 .733 morale Salary delay creates my .243 .664 distrust in the organization of each of the independent variables justifying their Importance .530 .329 Tolerance After Before Transformation Transformation .656 .822 .486 .086 .513 .670 .402 .151 .654 .692 Part Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Family issues affect my .254 .547 .295 .104 .818 performance in the organization δeaving too far from .005 .474 .243 .002 .726 my workplace is highly discouraging Issues with colleagues -.030 .274 .129 -.006 .682 do not bring the best out of me Delayed promotion at .317 .672 .410 .228 .514 my workplace discourages me Non-conducive cultural .239 .624 .360 .140 .597 environment negatively affects my performance δanguage barrier .059 .700 .443 .043 .583 negatively impacts my confident level I will like to leave the -.169 .657 .394 -.111 .569 organisation because of poor relationship with my supervisor Inadequate welfare .051 .648 .384 .033 .538 package may force me to leave the organization Source: Extracted from SPSS Output for Employees’ Data Dependent Variable: Are you satisfied with your present job? .766 .643 .444 .551 .369 .410 .630 .579 Table 4: Coefficients of each of the independent variables and their strength in explaining employee job satisfaction ***Have you ever change jobs? Standardized Df Coefficients Beta Bootstrap )1000) Estimate of Std. Error .654 .213 1 F Sig. 9.442 .003 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 *Job security issues lower my morale .679 .205 *Salary delay creates my distrust in the .497 .197 organization *Family issues affect my performance in .326 .163 the organization δeaving too far from my workplace is .285 .205 highly discouraging Issues with colleagues do not bring the .156 .229 best out of me *Delayed promotion at my workplace .572 .234 discourages me *Non-conducive cultural environment .466 .221 negatively affects my performance *δanguage barrier negatively impacts my .580 .257 confident level ***I will like to leave the organisation .522 .211 because of poor relationship with my supervisor *Inadequate welfare package may force .524 .213 me to leave the organization Source: Extracted from SPSS Output for Employees’ Data Dependent Variable: Are you satisfied with your present job? 4 3 10.975 6.348 .000 .001 4 4.001 .006 4 1.927 .116 4 .460 .764 4 5.991 .000 4 4.467 .003 4 5.080 .001 4 6.110 .000 4 6.080 .000 Notes: The three asterisks )***) indicate constructs that are E-Turnover linked; The remaining constructs with a single * are all factors that are indirectly connected to ETurnover but affect employee satisfaction in the job. Summary In order to fill the apparent gap in existing literature on studying the impact that E-Turnover has on organisations of all forms, including the business type, especially with regards to turnover as an independent variable, this research set out to assess the influence it has on organisational employees’ job satisfaction. The study employed quantitative methodology, both in data collection and analysis, using both descriptive and inferential methods to highlight both aggregated and disaggregated results. The findings indicated that four constructs were significantly connected with employee job satisfaction namely: employees’ job change habit, salary delay, family-related issues and delayed promotion. εuch more importantly, further and in-depth analyses demonstrated that when key variables were considered, 9 of them offered the most significant explanation to the variation in employee job satisfaction at work. The important variables are as follows: job security, delayed promotion, inadequate welfare package, intent to Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 leave due to poor relationship with supervisor and language barrier. Others are delay in salary payment, job change habit, non-conducive cultural environment and family-related issues. However, out of these 9 most important, the first four were the most significant while the last one was the least important. Conclusion and Implications To round this discussion up, it can be concluded that E-Turnover and intent to quit jobs by employees are sure warning signs that employees of a particular organisation are dissatisfied with their management. However, when combined with other challenges like lack of job security, inadequate welfare and lack of or delayed promotion, employees’ morale are bound to be negatively impacted with the potential for situation degenerating into a vicious cycle of high employee turnover. This could cause dissatisfaction and other related challenges among even the remaining employees and may lead to retention problems for the organisations concerned. εoreover, it is important to note that most of the other challenges discussed are affiliated with intent to quit and actual exit. By implication, in order to improve the level of job satisfaction of employees, organisations’ management must necessarily ensure that the level of E-turnover and its correlates, particularly intent to quit are managed to the level that is functional and beneficial to all stakeholders. When this occurs, the organisation can focus better on developing innovative ideas that is a match for the challenges of 21st century business and non-business concerns. In addition, employees of value must be assured of job security, get promoted as and at when due and provided with adequate welfare package that meet their needs. However, although family-related issues need to be improved, perhaps through family-friendly organisational policies, its impact is unlikely to be felt as the other eight issues. Suggestion for Future Research When only relevant β coefficients for the factors influencing job satisfaction from the results in table 4 were considered, the empirical findings showed that 9 of the 11 factors were the most influential on job satisfaction. Each of the 9 constructs impacts job satisfaction at varied levels for every unit of the latter. The β coefficients show how much job satisfaction increases with every one unit increase in each of the factors. Yet, one of the limitations of this study is that some key demographics that are often context, culture or country specific were not captured. Examples of these in Nigeria are ethnicity and language )e.g. Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Fulani etc.), religion )e.g. Christianity, Islamic, atheism, traditional), level of education, age, gender, marital status among others could form part of the explanatory variables to determine the role, if any, each play in employees’ job satisfaction. With that done, the newly introduced variables could be correlated, cross-tabulated or even be included in the regression model in future research to determine their potential effects on job satisfaction and employee turnover. It would also be interesting to determine whether any of the demographic variables intervenes between the dependent and independent variables. Figure 1 presents the model containing the key independent variables and their relevant β coefficients indicating their significance in relation to the dependent variable )job satisfaction). It is proposed that the suggested demographic variables, among others, could be incorporated into the model for future related studies. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Figure 1: An Empirical εodel of Influencers of Job Satisfaction among Hospitality Employees Source: Developed from Analysed Field Data in Table 4 References εeier, K. J., & Hicklin, A. )2008). Employee turnover and organizational performance: Testing a hypothesis from classical public administration. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 18)4), 573-590. Ingersoll, R. ε., & Smith, T. ε. )2003). The wrong solution to the teacher shortage. Educational δeadership, 60)8), 30-33. Glebbeek, A. C., & Bax, E. H. )2004). Is high employee turnover really harmful? An empirical test using company records. Academy of εanagement Journal, 47)2), 277-286. Armstrong, ε. 2011, "Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource εanagement Practice", Kogan Page, δondon N, vol. 1. Ongori, H. )2007). A review of the literature on employee turnover. African Journal of Business εanagement, 1)3), 049-054. Hutchinson, S., Villalobos, J. & Beruvides, ε. 1997, "Effects of high labour turnover in a serial assembly environment", International Journal of Production Research, vol. 35, no. 11, pp. 32013224. Zopiatis, A., Constanti, P., & Theocharous, A. δ. )2014). Job involvement, commitment, satisfaction Armstrong, ε. 2009, "Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource εanagement Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Practice", Kogan Page, δondon N, vol. 1. εcCarthy, G., Tyrrell, ε. P., & δehane, E. )2007). Intention to’leave’or’stay’in nursing. Journal of Nursing εanagement, 15)3), 248-255. Kim, B. P., εurrmann, S. K., & δee, G. )2009). εoderating effects of gender and organizational level between role stress and job satisfaction among hotel employees. International Journal of Hospitality εanagement, 28, 612-619. AlBattat, A. R. S., & Som, A. P. ε. )2013). Employee dissatisfaction and turnover crises in the malaysian hospitality industry. International Journal of Business and εanagement, 8)5), 62. George, D., & εallery, P. )2003). SPSS for windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update. wps. ablongman. com/wps/media/objects/385. George 4answers.Pdf. Starkweather, J. & Herrington, R. )2012). Research and statistical support )RSS) - SPSS short course: Categorical principal component analysis )CATPCA) with optimal scaling ]homepage of university of north Texas[. Retrieved from http://www.unt.edu/rss/class/Jon/SPSS_SC/εodule9/ε9_CATPCA/SPSS_ε9_CATPCA.htm UCδA. )2013). Anotated SPSS output ]homepage of university of California, δos Angeles[. Retrieved from http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/spss/output/logistic.htm Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Syrrina Ahsan Ali Haque Kinnaird College for Women Pakistan Abstract This research explores Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger as a means of subverting religio- social mindscape as a transnational nebulous for heterogeneous existence through deification of wealth. The novel written in an epistolary style is a monologue relaying polyphonic voices of variant religio-political identities collating and coalescing as agents of power and knowledge obfuscating the transnational boundaries existing within the psyches of pluralistic societies. The objective is to gauge how the narrative coheres archetypal fissures in a bid to subvert identity markers with deification of material agents like wealth deposing spiritual deities. This deification of wealth becomes a means of blurring caste, color and religious differences in a pluralistic society overshadowed by centuries of demarcated religio-social boundaries. Adiga proffers how wealth while providing a transnational nebulous, forges the hierarchal order of the society. In this context, Adiga is a contemporary writer targeting twenty first century political issues prevalent in the South Asian countries. Since, there is minimal critical work present on Adiga, this research fills the gap as it offers an exploration of relocation of religious identities via political deification of wealth in The White Tiger. εichel Foucault’s work on religion and power is used as a theoretical framework deciphering the contemporary issues pertaining to religious and social identities in plural landscapes. Future researchers can build upon the arguments discussed in this study on microcosmic level of Indian society and explore global repercussions of relocation of power. Keywords: deification, heterogeneous, power, religio-social, transnational Introduction Aravind Adiga’s debut novel, The White Tiger, proffers the existence of parallel worlds in terms of monetary disparities in a South Asian country, India, marred yet existing with centuries of racial, caste, color and creed discrepancies. The two worlds which Adiga crafts in his novel are demarcated by a single line unaffected by the archetypal disparities India had been maligned with. The deities which divided India and Indians become redundant in the presence of this line drawn out by one deity, which is wealth. Historically, there were eight racial groups in the Indian peninsula. These were: 1) Proto-Dravidian; 2) Dravidian; 3)Indo-Aryan; 3) Aryo-Dravidian; 5) Scytho-Dravidian; 6) εongoloid; 7)εongolo- Dravidian and 8) Turko- Iranian. This diversity led to diversity of languages spoken, “there are over 175 different languages, with more than 500 dialects, spoken in the sub-continent”) the Hind-Pakistan peninsula). Within the languages too, there is a hierarchal order and “twenty-three are important”) SHHP,1955: 6). These are important since these belong to “three different families”, the Aryans, Dravidians and εongolians. Apart from these racial differences, the importance of a language is reliant on the identification of that language to the religion it propagates. The εuslims “produced a new language”, its “vocabulary” is “drawn” from the languages of the εuslim settlers and the indigenous population”, it is called “Urdu”. The prevalence of a certain language and its predominance was not determined by the numbers practicing a certain religion but by the ruling party. There were “254,930, 506” Hindus while “92,058,096” εuslims in India in 1941, pre-partition, yet Urdu was “the mother-tongue” and understood by many. εuslims, however, were not the ruling party in 1941, yet, they had ruled India for the last seven centuries. Thus, their language was a powerful medium in Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 propagating their religion. Apart from Hinduism and Islam, India hosted hundreds of thousands representing their separate religious identities. There were and are Christians, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, Zorastrians, Jews and Animists in India. Such diversity of religious ideologies precludes homogeneity festering dialect and dissonance. Since centuries, India has foraged against plural disjunction. However, despite inter and intra-religious identities India has existed as a plural society. Apart from the event of Partition, there has not been a successful political drive dissecting the land any further. The dialectical co-existence is in continuous dialogue due to certain commonalities and shared elements. Adiga presents diffusion of “36,000,004 divine arses”)8), Socialists called Naxals defying any spiritual deity, and their subsequent subversion to one common yet material deity, which defines the identity of Indians and draws a singular line of demarcation which is wealth. This research explores Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger as a means of subverting religio- social mindscape as a transnational nebulous for heterogeneous existence through deification of wealth. The novel written in an epistolary style is a monologue relaying polyphonic voices of variant religio-political identities collating and coalescing as agents of power and knowledge obfuscating the transnational boundaries existing within the psyches of pluralistic societies. The objective is to gauge how the narrative coheres archetypal fissures in a bid to subvert identity markers with deification of material agents like wealth deposing spiritual deities. This deification of wealth becomes a means of blurring caste, color and religious differences in a pluralistic society overshadowed by centuries of demarcated religio-social boundaries. Adiga proffers how wealth while providing a transnational nebulous, forges the hierarchal order of the society. In this context, Adiga is a contemporary writer targeting twenty first century political issues prevalent in the South Asian countries. Since, there is minimal critical work present on Adiga, this research fills the gap as it offers an exploration of relocation of religious identities via political deification of wealth in The White Tiger. Future researchers can build upon the arguments discussed in this study on microcosmic level of Indian society and explore global repercussions of relocation of power. δiterature Review εichel Foucault’s work on religion and power is used as a theoretical framework deciphering the contemporary issues pertaining to religious and social identities in plural landscapes. Foucault writes in The History of Sexuality, “By power, I do not mean ‘Power’ as a group of institutions and mechanism that ensure the subservience of the citizens of a given state. By power, I do mean, either, a mode of subjugation which, in contrast, to violence, has the form of the rule. Finally, I do not have in mind a general system of domination exerted by one group over another” ) Foucault, 1990: 92). This mode is seen as wealth and accumulation of wealth in The White Tiger. Adiga writes, “ all that counted now, the size of the belly. It didn’t matter whether you were a woman, or a εuslim, or an untouchable: anyone with a belly could rise” ) Adiga, 2015:64). Since, “Power’s condition of possibility…must not be sought in the primary existence of central point, in a unique source of sovereignty from which secondary and descendent forms would emanate” a transnational nebulous which blurs the differences of caste, creed, color and religion can offer heterogeneity as a positive of co-existence. Foucault raises questions, “what are these various contrivances of power, whose operations extend to such differing levels and sectors of society and are possessed of such manifold ramifications? What are their mechanisms, their effects and their relations? Is the analysis of power or of powers to be deduced in one way or another from the economy?” He makes these questions the focus of his research and claims “power is taken to be right, which one is able to possess like a commodity, and which one can in Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 consequence transfer or alienate, either wholly or partially, through a legal act or through some act that establishes a right, such as takes place through cession or contact” . Consequently, “power is that concrete power which every individual holds, and whose partial or total cession enables political power or sovereignty to be established”) Foucault 1972-77: 88). He categorically proclaims that “the historical raison d’etre of political power is to be found in the economy” ) Foucault 1972-77: 89). Adiga’s character, Balram Halwai, raises himself from the designated caste and its subsequent requirement of being a Halwai )sweetmaker), in his case, a tea stall boy, and establishes his sovereignty through the power of his wealth. Balram is taken out of school and works as a tea stall boy till he becomes a driver and drives his master, Ashok around Delhi with bribe money which Ashok hands out to corrupt politicians. Balram murders Ashok, lives a life of a fugitive yet, establishes his own business and recycles the money back as bribe to corrupt politicians. He relocates his position on the hierarchal order by reestablishing his identity as an entrepreneur rather than a tea stall boy or a driver. He reorders the centuries old Hindu caste system. The Hindu society “is divided into four sections called castes. At the top of the social hierarchy are the Brahmins, who are the priestly class. The Kshatriyas come next as rulers and warriors. The Vaishyas are merchants and agriculturists. The lowest are the Shudras the servile caste. Outside the pale of castes are the untouchables who are the descendants of the non-Aryans who were reduced to slavery and entrusted with unclean and menial work”. There are sub-castes and “there are elaborate rules regarding social behavior which depend upon birth; for instance a man cannot change his caste by the change of his profession”. This caste system has developed “out of the color discrimination between the Aryans and the Dasyus”, since the word ‘varana’ used for caste, means “colour”. According to a strong-held belief, “the Brahmins were born out of the mouth, the Rajanyas )Kshatriyas) out of the arms, the Vaishyas out of the things and the Shudras out of the feet of Brahma, the Creator...Some Hindus attribute the preservation of their culture and civilization through the ages to the caste system” ) SHHP 1955: 33-34). Adiga introduces another system of division which nullifies historical “raisond’etre” of power and Balram’s “halfbaked” color making power centripetal around a singular deity- wealth. According to John Stuart εill, the theories of wealth are based on a “triple foundation”. Firstly, there is a “belief that economics is a moral discipline”. Secondly, “a theory of custom-driven human behavior” and thirdly, “an empirically formed conviction that the institutes of state, education and business cooperate to structure the distribution of income” )Jenson, 2010:491). Adiga questions the morality of centuries old tradition of division of wealth according to specified caste distinction, human behavior with respect to what a particular caste does and the role of corrupt state institutions run by wealth-oriented politicians. Here too, Adiga allocates the difference between two classes rather than castes in their deification. While the upper class has become oblivious to the 36, 000, 004 deities and finds a marvel in the deification of these deities by the lower class, which does not have access to the deity the upper class bows down to, which is wealth. However, this research argues that Adiga proffers the possibility of integration of these classes with the deification of one omnipotent element-wealth. It is wealth which obfuscates color and caste barriers laid down centuries ago. The acquisition and accumulation of wealth leads to a relentless appetite for wealth, which confers a commonality among the castes and creeds and nations at large, so far as the lower class is willing to break free from the “Rooster Coop”, which is guarded from the inside” ) Adiga 194). Adiga describes how this Rooster Coop works for the Indian hierarchal system. The analogy he uses is that of the wire-meshed cage in which chickens are kept before being slaughtered. He writes, “they keep chickens there in the Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 market…stuffed tightly into wire-mesh cages, packed as tightly as worms in a belly, pecking each other and shitting on each other, jostling for breathing space, the whole cage giving off a horrified stench- the stench of terrified, feathered flesh”. The mechanism of this Coop is to witness murder of one’s own counterpart and remain compliant. “The roosters in the coop smell blood from above. They see the organs of their brothers lying around them. They know they’re next. Yet they do not rebel. They do not try to get out” ) 173). Balram acknowledged his entrapment, “I was trapped in the Rooster Coop”)177). He is trapped because he says , “the desire to be a servant had been bred into me: hammered into my skull, nail after nail, and poured into my blood, the way sewage and industrial poison into εother Ganga”)193). εany remain trapped, however, Balram is “growing a belly”) 231). Initially he starts stealing from his master, next he feels proud to see one of his kind “showing some ambition in life” ) 232). As he plans the murder, the imaginary “alarm bell of the Rooster Coop”)248) starts “ringing”…A rooster was escaping from the coop!”)248-49).He reiterates there are only two types of people, the ones with the Small Belly and the ones with the Big Belly, while the small- bellied remain trapped inside their coop, the big bellied run the affairs of the state in such a manner, that trap is tightened further for the small-bellied. To foster this system, the country is divided into “two”- “two Indias. The δight and the Darkness”)251). Interestingly, the micronationalities and castes which inhabit India can coalesce and collate at a focal point from where they can be transported from the Darkness to δight. The acknowledgement of the omnipotence of wealth empowers the smallbellied to break free from the “ten thousand years” old “Rooster Coop”)173). In this regard, wealth obliterates nationalism at grass root level and deconstructs “cultural homogenization” present in “a high culture on society”. Nationalism, according to Ernest Gellner’s theory claims that “primarily a political principle that holds the political and the national unit should be congruent” ) Gellner, 1983:3). What forms the national unit defies “low culture”, diffuses “superimposed idiom” and establishes an “anonymous impersonal society…held together above all by a shared culture” ) Gellner, 57). While, Hazlitt sees nationalism as a “mode of freedom” ) Bhabha 138) εarxists deem it a “nasty ideological formation” ) 139). Bhabha on the other hand claims, “that nationalism may operate for a wide variety of different groups within the nation- though it need not imply ‘multiculturalism’, a concept which retains both to liberal pluralism and to culturalism”)140). Thus, transnationalism, which means, “extending beyond or going beyond national boundaries” )“Transnationalism”), offers a mode of interconnectivity. In this regard, an omnipotent deity can adhere the micro national communities, creeds and races and coalesce these by extending beyond the boundaries of nationalist ideology. If “power comes from everywhere” )Foucault, 1998:63) then, the most powerful and empowered entity is wealth in the progressing South Asian mindscape. εethod This is an exploratory as well as explanatory research. The approach used is qualitative, thus, inductive. The primary text used is Aravind Adiga’s novel, The Whit Tiger. The secondary sources used are books, scholarly journals and online sources. The theoretical framework used is εichel Foucault’s work on Power and Knowledge. Discussion and Analysis In the light of the above mentioned terms and phraseologies, pertinent in understanding the dynamics of power, deification and transnationalism, Adiga’s novel conjugates the Indian society in particular, and the global mindscape at large, by using wealth as a medium of Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 interconnectivity. He presents a possibility of blurring boundaries demarcated by centuries- old tradition of division of economy, society and civilization. He precludes the mindset embedded within the dominion of archetypal ideologies pertaining to religio-social differences. He allocates the division to one entity which is wealth, making all other redundant. While it is impossible to overstep the hierarchal order established within the archetypes of the society, it is possible to obtrude the boundaries with the acquisition of wealth. One cannot change one’s color, caste, creed and often religion which form the basis of religio-socio fissures in a society. These archetypal modes of existence have been infused in the psyche of the people, through training. Adiga claims, “a handful of men in this country have trained the remaining 99.9 percent- as strong, as talented, as intelligent in every way”. So, despite being trapped in the coop and deprived of formal education, the individuals dwelling in the Dark are not inferior to the ones in the δight in any way. According to Shayyan Haque and Ahsan, “In White Tiger, Adiga deconstructs the multi-caste system and divides the Indian socio-political structure into merely two divisions, the δight and Darkness. Darkness is the source of power for the people in the δight” ) Haque & Ahsan, 2016:4). Religion and social norms inculcate the designated differences, infusing a sense of inferiority as bred by centuries of religio-socio teachings. The training is such that the 99.9 per cent must “exist in perpetual servitude; a servitude so strong that you can put the key of his emancipation in a man’s hands and he will throw it back at you with a curse” ) 176). Balram is a white tiger, not only because he is intelligent but because he has the zest to be different-beyond the accepted norms. He may have been brought up by the same ideals yet, he has the power to break free from the cage. He acknowledges the real power which runs the social order and values this power more than the scruples which have been imbued within him. The only shackle that implores him is the well-being of his family. Again, centuries of teachings against the idea of revolt implicate the revolutionary. Even Balram has heard harrowing tales of genocide of families of such rebels. He has to emancipate himself from the familial bond. Once he is released from that he can release himself from the traditional social order. However, the presence of his nephew, Dharam, at his side, connects him to the kernel. εetaphorically, he remains connected to religion, as the word Dharam’s literal meaning is religion. However, Balram’s religion exploits him. Dharam is aware of an innate guilt which betrays Balram only to Dharam. Thus, Dharam’s exploitation makes him aligned to all deities which exploit and use their followers. In this case, it is wealth. Thus, the difference between Balram and others in the coop, is that of awareness of the possibility to disconnect with the past to connect with the entire world in the present. His wealth and the confidence that he acquires with acquisition of it empowers him enough to communicate with the Chinese Premier. Adiga uses the epistolary style, as it is a monologue which apparently subverts all other voices, allocating hegemony to Balram’s voice. However, Balram is in continuous dialogue with his masters, equals and later subordinates. He addresses the Premier in a bid to relay his truth, “ If anyone knows the truth about Bangalore, it’s me”)4). There is no one to challenge his truth, so Balram becomes the creator of truth and knowledge which in turn empowers him. Nevertheless, in order to understand his truth the Premier has to hear other voices through Balram. Balram thus, becomes the mouthpiece for Ashok who has seen not only the δight but witnessed the enlightenment of the United States of America. Yet, he is tarnished and blackened by the system once in India. He presents the voice of the Stork, εongoose, Vijay the politician, the εuslims and his family living in the Darkness but the presenter is always Balram. So the knowledge that he imparts is generated form his own truth, alloting him hegemony as a powerful narrator. This power is within him and finds expression when he acquires the power of the wealth he makes. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Wealth makes him confident to convey his message. He becomes the preacher of his newfound religion, which deifies an omnipotent god-wealth. For Balram, the moment of epiphany is when he reads the verse, “You were looking for the key for years/ But the door was always open!”)253). He realizes that the opportunity to blur the great divide between the world of Darkness and δight is ever- present. His interpretation of this omnipresence is the acquisition of wealth. It is therefore, his divine right to acquire the omnipresent opportunity. India and Indians have been protected by such revolutions due to the adherence to religio-social laws. He is the white tiger, born to be free, he cannot survive within the territorial boundaries of a cage in a zoo. According to Adiga, This country, in its greatness, when it was the richest nation on earth, was like a zoo. A clean, well-kept, orderly zoo. Everyone in his place, everyone happy. Goldsmiths here. Cowherds here. δandlords there. The man called a Halwai made sweets. The man called a cowherd tended cows. The untouchables cleaned faeces. δandlords were kind to their serfs. Women covered their heads in veil and turned their eyes to the ground when talking to strange men.) 63) However, since the independence of India and a subsequent partition of the land, “the politicians in Delhi” let the “cages” open, “and the animals attacked and ripped each other apart jungle law replaced zoo law”) 63-64). Here, although Adiga explicitly points out the outcome of revocation of centuries-old tradition of “orderly” law, he calls the new law “jungle law” which subverts the zoo law. Despite the animal analogies prevalent throughout the novel, the characters are human. Therefore, it is a prerequisite for human society to function outside the “zoo”. Balram defies the zoo mentality despite acknowledging the inevitable requirement of society to entrap the people from Darkness, “half-baked” or illiterate within cages. It is the half-baked who find themselves trapped because they have seen glimpses of being free through reading other prospects of living. Their unfinished formal education has provided the groundwork for street knowledge to build its pyramid on. Foucault’s theory on Power/Knowledge claims that , …in a society…there are manifold relations of power which permeate, characterize and constitute the social body, and these relations of power cannot themselves be established, consolidated nor implemented without the production, accumulation, circulation and functioning of a discourse.) 1972-77: 93) He further explains how knowledge is linked to power, Knowledge linked to power, not only assumes the authority of ‘the truth’but has the power to make itself true. All knowledge, once applied in the real world, has real effects, and in that sense at least, ‘becomes true’. Knowledge, once used to regulate the conduct of others, entails constraint, regulation and the disciplining of practices. Thus, there is no power relation without the correlative constitution of a field of knowledge, nor any knowledge that does not presuppose and constitute at the same time, power relations. )Foucault 1977: 27) Consequently, mediums of knowledge infuse power in objects, persons and discourse. Religious discourse had been infusing this power to different deities, social norms and constraints had created knowledge which advocated division according to the religious knowledge and refraction due to the enormity of discourse. δater, the Socialists, called the Naxals in India, tried to rid the society of the caste division, by introducing a seemingly classless society. However, as the Socialists entered the political arena, they found a deity too, which is wealth. Without this deity, they could not propagate their ideals. Adiga re-constructs the religious as well as areligious knowledge producing the truth that there is one deity which divides the new world order into two, crossing nationalist boundaries.This deity does not need religious or social discourse to repress, suppress or subordinate. It requires the knowledge that this deity exists and anyone who Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 acknowledges its existence above others has a chance to become empowered himself. The individual has to see himself outside the parameters of herd and zoo mentality. He has to acknowledge himself as the white tiger, different from others, disconnected from the umbilical cord of nationalist mindset. Balram quotes εuslim poets and refers to them for guidance, since he does not bind himself to religious fetters in attaining a singular truth. He writes, “Iqbal, that great poet, was so right. The moment you recognize what is beautiful in this world, you stop being a slave” )276). He recognizes the beauty within himself and becomes a εaster. Balram adopts and adapts to the ways of Dhanband, Delhi and then Bangalore. He dismisses the δaxmangarh psyche which expects him to remain a tea stall boy, next he puts on garbs which his master wears, even a maharaja tunic and quits eating paan, learns the art of coffee-drinking in Bangalore and adopts entrepreneurial ways. Thus, with the power he has acquired he can shed his learned ways and appearance. He can adopt any nationality or revoke it altogether. He changes from “a hunted criminal into a solid pillar of Bangalorian society”)292). Despite his “wanted” “police poster” plastered on the wall of the police station, the police know only one language, the language of cash. He writes to the Premier, “The moment you show cash, everyone knows your language”)300). Cash has provided him with the most important privilege“the choice”. According to Balram, in Bangalore, “if a man wants to be good, he can be good. In δaxmangarh, he doesn’t even have this choice. That is the difference between this India and that India: the choice” ) 306). Bangalore is a city of “tomorrow”, its success lies in the new capitalist society sprouting, and not on the suppression of one class, caste or race, to rise. He might have killed his εaster to acquire the red bag of cash, lifting him from the Darkness, but he claims, “Isn’t it likely that everyone who counts in this world, including our prime minister…has killed someone or other on their way to the top? Kill enough people and they will put up bronze statues to you near Parliament House in Delhi”. However, he is not after glorification, all he wants is “a chance to be a man”) 318). For this, he has to rise above his caste, creed, color and religion. He has to look to the new power, since he has always been a “man who sees ‘tomorrow’ when others see ‘today’”)319). He sees beyond nationalist borders and reaches out to the world, in a manner like the outsourcing companies his taxi service works for. Thus, his truth needs knowledge for it to become powerful and he aims to create this knowledge which blurs religio-social boundaries enabling heterogeneous existence. Balram desires to reinforce his knowledge and reiterate its importance through propagation of his acquired literacy. He wishes to “start a school- an English-language school- for children in Bangalore. A school where you won’t be allowed to corrupt anyone’s head with prayers and stories about God and Gandhi- nothing but the facts of life for these kids. A school of White Tigers, unleashed…”)319). References Adiga, A.)2015). The white tiger. India: Harper Collins. Bhabha, H.K.)1999). Nation and Narration. δondon: Routledge. Foucault, ε. )1977) .Power/Knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings 1972-77. New York: Pantheon Books. …)1990). The history of sexuality volume 1. : An introduction. New York: Vintage. …)1998).The history of sexuality: The will to knowledge. δondon: Penguin. Gellner, E. ) 1983). Ernest Gellner’s nationalism. Retrieved from “Nationalism”. Retrieved on 10 Nov 2016. Haque, S.N & Ahsan, S. )2016). “Demythologizing the power myth by re-creating truth in Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Aravind Adiga’s TheWhite Tiger”.Impact: International journal of research in humanities, arts and literature.Vol.4:7. July 2016. Pakistan History Board. Ed. A short history of Hind-Pakistan. Pakistan: Pakistan Historical Society. “Transnationalism”. εerriam Webster Dictionary. Retrieved on 10 Nov 2016. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 APPLICATION OF QUALITY INDICATORS IN CRITICAL CARE UNITS OF A TERTIARY CARE HOSPITAL OF HYDERABAD - INDIA K.Srikanth, Research Scholar, University of Hyderabad, India Dr.Sapna Singh, Associate Professor, University of Hyderabad, India ABSTRACT Healthcare industry which is one of the most crucial components of service sector includes many subsectors in it comprising of Hospitals, εedical Infrastructure, εedical Devices, Clinical Trials, Outsourcing, Telemedicine. δeading the healthcare from front is hospitals and service delivery by hospitals is a matter of patient lives which is intangible in nature and as hospitals are becoming complex, opportunities for errors abound and as patients are also demanding for better services, service quality has become a discerning tool in the never ending race amongst the corporate health care providers endeavors to attain numerous top positions. In today’s hospital environment, the practice of quantifying the performance of hospital care, a set of Quality Indicators has become an important part of hospital business. Quality Indicators allow hospital to track their performance and to assess whether the care provided to patients confirm to the dictates of Total Quality Improvement. Quality of service offered, result of intervention and treatment, undesirable outcomes can be analyzed to define the scope of improvement and Quality Indicators helps in achieving these objectives. Intensive Care Unit is a complex organization involving different disciplines and the use of Quality Indicators in ICUs’ is helpful in assessing its performance and reflecting the overall efficiency of ICU’s treatment. The present study was conducted in ICU’s of a tertiary care hospital of Hyderabad, India which includes εICU, SICU, NICU, Pediatric ICU, Neonatal ICU and the objective of study was to monitor specific indicators in selected ICU’s which allow hospital to track their performance against a number of parameters and to assess the level of quality of care provided to patients. For the purpose of study, selected indicators which includes Average length of stay, εortality rate have been considered and retrospectively data has been collected from the patients’ medical records for each of indicators for period of January –December 2011 for the purpose of benchmarking and comparing it with three months data of January –εarch 2012, to interpret the deviations in Individual ICU’s with respect to each Quality Indicator. In the light of data collected from various ICU’s, results of study have been interpreted and discussed. These findings have a significant implication on development of an effective management system with a strive for improving quality related to organization, processes and outcomes of the ICU’s. Keywords: Benchmarking, Intensive Care Units, Healthcare, Hospitals, Quality Indicators. 1. INTRODUCTION Healthcare industry which is one of the most crucial components of service sector includes many subsectors in it comprising of Hospitals, εedical infrastructure, εedical devices, Clinical trials, Outsourcing, Telemedicine, Health insurance all of which delivers goods and services to treat patients on preventive, curative, rehabilitative, and palliative care basis. δeading the healthcare from the front is the hospitals and service delivery by hospitals is a matter of patient lives which is highly intangible in nature and can’t be physically viewed or touched like a manufactured product and since hospitals are becoming more complex and so have the competitive forces, opportunities for errors abound and as the patients are also demanding for Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 better services, quality of service has become a discerning tool in the never ending race amongst the corporate health care providers endeavors to attain the numerous top positions. In today’s hospital environment, the practice of measuring the performance of hospital care, a set of Quality Indicators have become an important part of hospital business and is set to become even more crucial in the future. With the increasing choice for patients, clinicians and surgeons know that if quality standards are not met, their customers can always shift to another facility. Thus continuous management of quality is needed and these quality standards help to execute and achieve quality services and are important benchmark for an organization to achieve its goals. 1.1 Conceptual basis of Quality Indicators Quality Indicators are the parameters through which a hospital performance is measured. Usually they come in the form of risk adjusted rates of negative outcomes for specific procedures. Quality Indicators are required not only to measure the quality of care provided in a particular hospital but also to compare the status of care provided among the competing hospitals. Quality Indicators also helps to measure the extent to which objectives and targets of the hospital are being attained. It is the ethical and moral responsibility of health care providers that quality of care prevailing is optimal under the prevailing circumstances. It is easier said than done due to the complex interaction of man, machine and system in health care establishments. Deviation therefore is not uncommon. Despite these influences, reasonable standards can be maintained by quantification of service level, identification of gap )between the delivered & planned care) and bridging the gap by taking improvement initiatives followed by regular monitoring and comparison with the preselected bench marks. Comparison of parameters however is the most difficult task owing to the variation in patient population, critical care structure )e.g. rural vs. urban, open vs. closed and teaching vs. community hospital), availability of resources, quality orientation and implementation level. Service offered should also be uniform and demonstrable. 1.1.1 Critical Care Units: A vital component Critical Care medicine is one of the major components of the current health care delivery system and represents the apex of technical advancements in medicine. Such units integrate many specialties and diverse technologies offering the possibility of survival to patients who would otherwise die. Critical Care units are nothing but, with a specialized and dedicated care given by a team to a patient who is critically ill. The aim of critical care is to see that one provides a care such that the patient improves and survives the acute illness or tides over the acute exacerbation of the chronic illness. 1.1.2 Critical Care Units - Demand There is a great demand for critical care unit bed in a hospital, which costs three times more per day than in an acute care ward bed. In India, the critical care unit uses 9% of the total hospital budget and in U.S it is 12-13%. In many western countries, 10% or more of acute inpatient beds are devoted to critical care and the number of patients requiring Intensive care unit care is predicted to double in the next few decades as the elderly population grows. The rapid growth in Intensive care unit patient volume and acuity has created severe pressure on hospitals. There is a great inter-hospital variability in Intensive care unit care processes and inconsistencies in the quality of care received by patients. In many western countries there are insufficient numbers of physicians trained to care for the critically ill. Severe shortage of trained and efficient nurses and other support personnel further complicate Intensive care units care delivery. Improving Intensive care units performance Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 requires that we shift from a paradigm that concentrates on individual performance to a different paradigm that emphasizes the need to assess and improve critical care systems and processes. 1.2 Research Question How to quantify the level of patient care in critical care medicine department at a tertiary care hospital of Hyderabad, India using selected Quality Indicators. 1.3 Objectives of study 1. To select and apply the most common and universal Quality Indicators mainly focusing on the outcome of patient care in the selected critical care units. 2. To assess the performance of the critical care units against a number of parameters by the use of specific indicators. 3. To generate a database for comparison with International benchmarks and provide data to the participating institution for predicting the trend in the future years. 2. εATERIAδS AND εETHODS 2.1 Study design Descriptive research study. A descriptive research portrays how things are in reality, with accurate representativeness. The present study is intended to measure the performance of critical care units hence the study is descriptive and also analytical in nature as the study involves indepth analysis of identifying the deviations in individual critical care units with respect to each Quality Indicator. 2.2 Study area All the medical records of patients were collected from the selected critical care units of tertiary care hospital of Hyderabad, India. 2.3 Sampling frame Sampling frame selected for the study is the critical care units of the tertiary care hospital of Hyderabad, India. 2.4 Sampling method Convenience sampling technique is used to collect data from the medical records of the patients. 2.5 Sample size εedical records of all the patients who presented to the critical care units of the tertiary care hospital of Hyderabad, India during the period of January 2011 to εarch 2012 were considered as an appropriate sample size for the study. 2.6 Hypotheses 2.6.1 Average length of stay H0 - There is no difference between the ICU’s which showed an increased Average length of stay in relation to its benchmark mean. H1 - There is a significant difference between the ICU’s which showed an increased Average Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 length of stay in relation to its benchmark mean. 2.6.2 εortality Rate H0 - There is no difference between the ICU’s which showed an increased mortality rate in relation to its benchmark mean H1 - There is a significant difference between the ICU’s which showed an increased mortality rate in relation to its benchmark mean. 3. RESUδTS 3.1 Average δength of Stay Average length of stay is the average number of days the patients’ stayed in the hospital. Average length of stay )Days) = Total number of patient days Total number of patients. Total number of patient days in the appropriate category is calculated by: Day one was counted as the first patient day regardless of the time the patient is been admitted in the hospital. δast patient day was counted as a full day regardless of the time patient was discharged from the hospital. Inclusion criteria: εedical records of all the patients who were admitted in the selected Critical care units of the hospital were included under the study. Exclusion criteria: Admission registers and medical records of the Critical care units which had certain irregularities, inaccuracies in the form of repetitions, exclusions and misrepresentations are excluded from the study. Sample size: A total sample size of 1232 medical records were considered for the 12 month period for benchmarking which was reviewed retrospectively and was compared prospectively with a sample size of 478 medical records for the 3 month period. Table 1: Benchmark mean of Average length of stay of Intensive care units for the twelve month period ICU )εean + SD) SICU NICU εICU 1 2.35 + 0.76 4.28 + 1.19 3.69 +0.63 εICU 2 εICU 3 PICU 4.20 + 0.84 3.95 + 0.78 4.41 + 1.61 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Neonatal ICU 0.87 + 0.29 Table 2: Average length of stay of Intensive care units showing deviations from benchmark mean for the three month period S.no εonth ICU δength of stay Benchmark mean 1 January NICU εICU2 5.59 5.18 4.28 4.2 2 February Neonatal 2.22 0.87 3 εarch εICU 3 PICU 7 10.33 3.95 4.41 Table 3: Analysis of Variance – Single Factor )ANOVA) Anova: Single Factor SUεεARY Groups Count Sum Average Variance NICU 2 9.87 4.935 0.85805 εICU 2 2 9.38 4.69 0.4802 εICU 3 2 10.95 5.475 4.65125 PICU 2 14.74 7.37 17.5232 NEO NATAδ 2 3.09 1.545 0.91125 ANOVA Source of Variation Sum of Squares df εean Square F P –value F crit Between Groups 35.37166 8.842915 1.810296 0.26431266 5.19216777 4 Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Within Groups 24.42395 5 Total 59.79561 9 4.88479 Interpretation of ANOVA From the above given ANOVA table, it is found that the F value is significantly less than F critical value and p value is greater than 0.05 which is statistically insignificant. Thus we accept null hypothesis )Ho), and reject alternate hypothesis )H1) and we can conclude that there is statistically not a significant difference between the ICU’s which showed an increased length of stay in relation to its benchmark mean. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 Fig. 1. Histogram showing Process Capability Index for Average length of stay for 12 month period In the above given histogram, the Capability Index Cp , for Average length of stay is 0.98 which is close to 1.00 when all the processes are centered within upper specification limit )USδ) and lower specification limit )δSδ) and when off centered by 3σ. Hence we can conclude that the processes of Average length of stay, is capable of meeting its specifications for the next few years. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 3.2 εortality Rate εortality rate is the measure of the number of deaths per 100 patients per month. εortality rate )%) = Total number of patients staying greater than 48 hrs and whose hospital outcome is death Total number of patients staying greater than 48 hrs. Inclusion criteria: εedical records of all the patients who were admitted in the critical care units of the hospital were included under the study. Exclusion criteria: Admission registers and medical records of the critical care units which had certain irregularities, inaccuracies in the form of repetitions, exclusions and misrepresentations are excluded from the study. Sample size: A total sample size of 278 medical records were considered for the 12 month period for benchmarking which was reviewed retrospectively and compared prospectively with a sample size of 42 medical records for the 3 month period. Table 4.Benchmark mean of εortality rate of Intensive care units for the twelve month period ICU )εean + SD) SICU 1.92 + 1.97 NICU 6.09 + 4.09 εICU 1 8.48 + 5.59 εICU 2 13.57 + 10.86 εICU 3 7.04 + 6.63 PICU 1.08 + 3.76 Neonatal ICU 0+ 0 Table 5. εortality rate of Intensive care units showing deviations from benchmark mean for the three month period. Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 S.no εonth ICU εortality rate Benchmark mean 1 January εICU I 14 8.48 2 February εICU I 13.5 8.48 3 εarch SICU NICU εICU III PICU 24 20 20 18.1 1.92 6.09 7.04 1.08 Table 6. Analysis of Variance – SINGδE FACTOR )ANOVA) SUεεARY Groups Count Sum Average Variance SICU 2 25.92 12.96 243.7632 NICU 2 26.09 13.045 96.74405 εICU 1 3 35.98 11.99333 9.320133 εICU 3 2 27.04 13.52 83.9808 PICU 2 19.18 9.59 144.8402 ANOVA Source of Variation SS Df εS F P-value F crit Between Groups 19.82037424 4 4.955094 0.050565 0.993893 4.533677 Within Groups 587.9685167 6 97.99475 Total 607.7888909 10 Interpretation of ANOVA From the above given ANOVA table, it is found that the F value is significantly less than F critical value and p value is greater than 0.05 which is statistically insignificant. Thus we accept null hypothesis )Ho), and reject alternate hypothesis )H1) and we can conclude that there is statistically not a significant difference between the ICU’s which showed an increased mortality rate in relation to its benchmark mean. Fig. 2. Histogram showing Process Capability Index for εortality Rate for 12 month period Canadian International Journal for Social Science and Education Volume 10, January 2017 In the above given histogram, the Capability Index Cp , for εortality Rate is 1.10 when all the processes are centered within upper specification limit )USδ) , and lower specification limit )δSδ) and when off centered by 3σ . Hence we can conclude that the processes of εortality Rate, is highly capable of meeting its specifications for the next few years. Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 4. DISCUSSIONS The present study represents the first attempt to select and apply the most common and universal Quality Indicators mainly focusing on outcome of the patient care which are applied in the critical care units of tertiary care hospital of Hyderabad, India. Our study addressed quantifying the level of patient care in critical care units of tertiary care hospital using indicators which includes Average length of stay and εortality rate. In our study, we found that with respect to Average length of stay, critical care units which performed with an increased length of stay values in relation to its benchmark mean were Neuro Intensive Care Unit )NICU), εedical Intensive Care Unit – II )εICU II), εedical Intensive Care Unit III )εICU III), Pediatric Intensive Care Unit )PICU) and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit )Neonatal ICU). We also found that with respect to εortality Rate, critical care units which performed with an increased εortality Rate values in relation to its benchmark mean were εedical Intensive Care Unit –I)εICU I), Surgical Intensive Care Unit )SICU), Neuro Intensive Care Unit )NICU), εedical Intensive Care Unit III )εICUIII), Pediatric Intensive Care Unit )PICU). 5. CONCδUSIONS Quality Indicators are the leadership tools which help the top management to keep focus on the performance levels of the critical care units which occupy a prominent role in the hospital. The use of this leadership quality tools helps the senior management to align organizational efforts to achieve higher levels of performance. It helps to present the critical information and highlights the centres so that long term improvements in operations can be strategized. Therefore, a systematic measurement system promotes management and accountability. They can be used to improve the quality of both clinical and operational services and increase organizational efficiency. The present research shows that with respect to Average δength of Stay, the overall performance of critical care units which includes εICU I and Surgical Intensive Care Unit )SICU) was good and with respect to εortality Rate, the overall performance of critical care units which includes εICU II, Neonatal ICU was good where as the rest of the critical care units needed improvement measures which if implemented phase wise on a long term basis would improve the overall efficiency of the critical care units. 6. δIεITATIONS OF STUDY The main limitation of the study is that the benchmarking of the selected Quality Indicators was done internal to the standards of the tertiary care hospital of Hyderabad, India and was not compared with other hospital settings; hence the findings cannot be generalized across all the hospital settings. Second, in the present study for the purpose of standardization, Quality Indicator values for each month which were at its extremes were ruled out to avoid discrepancies, which could in turn affect the validity and accuracy of the study. Third, sampling period for benchmarking each Quality Indicator was only 12 months and preceding months data was not taken into consideration, hence could be considered as a major limitation of our study. REFERENCES 1. de Vos, ε. δ. G., Graafmans, W. C., Kooistra, ε., εeijboom, B. R., van der Voort, P. H., & Westert, G. P. )2009). Using quality indicators to improve hospital care: A review of the literature. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 21)2), 1191 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 129. 2. de Vos ε, Graafmans W, Keesman E, Westert G, van der Voort PH. Quality measurement at intensive care units: which indicators should we use?. Journal of Critical Care, Vol. 22 No. 4, 2009 pp. 267-74. 3.Pronovost PJ, Berenholtz Sε, Ngo K, εcDowell ε, Holzmueller C, Haraden C, Resar R, Rainey T, Nolan T, Dorman T. Developing and pilot testing quality indicators in the intensive care unit. Journal of Critical Care, Vol. 18 No. 3, 2003 pp. 145-55. 4. Berenholtz Sε, Dorman T, Ngo K, Pronovost PJ. Qualitative review of intensive care unit quality indicators. Journal of Critical Care, Vol.17 No. 1, 2002 pp. 1-12. 5. Clarke EB, Curtis JR, δuce Jε, δevy ε, Danis ε, Nelson J, Solomon εZ; Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Critical Care End-Of-δife Peer Workgroup εembers. Quality indicators for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit. Journal of Critical Care εedicine, Vol.31 No. 9, 2003 pp 2255- 62. 6. Grenier-Sennelier C, Corriol C, Daucourt V, εichel P, εinvielle E. Developing quality indicators in hospitals: the COεPAQH project. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique, Vol.53 Spec No 1:1, 2005 pp S22-30. 7. Najjar-Pellet J, Jonquet O, Jambou P, Fabry J. Quality assessment in intensive care units: proposal for a scoring system in terms of structure and process. Intensive Care εedicine, Vol.34 No. 2, 2008 Feb pp 278-85. 8. Young εP, Birkmeyer JD. Potential reduction in mortality rates using an intensivist model to manage intensive care units. Eff Clinical Practice, Vol. 3 No. 6, 2000 Nov-Dec pp 284-9. 9. de Vos εδ, van der Veer SN, Graafmans WC, de Keizer NF, Jager KJ, Westert GP, van der Voort PH. Implementing quality indicators in intensive care units: exploring barriers to and facilitators of behaviour change. Implement Sci, Vol. 5 2010 July, doi: 10.1186/1748-5908-5-52. 10. Abdulsalam ε Alaithan, Javed I εemon, Rifat S Rehmani, Arif A Qureshi, and Abdul Salam. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: hospital and intensive care unit outcomes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Vol. 7 2012 December, doi: 10.2147/COPD.S37611. 11. Brook RH, εcGlynn EA, Cleary PD. Quality of health care. Part 2: εeasuring quality of care. New England Journal of εedicine 1996; 335: 966-970. 12. Donabedian A: The seven pillars of quality. Arch Pathol δab εed 1990; 114: 1115-1118. 13. Horan TC, Gaynes RP. Surveillance of nosocomial infections. In: εayhall CG, editor. Hospital Epidemiology and Infection Control. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: δippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2004. p. 1659-1702. 14. Zimmerman JE, Alzola C, Von Rueden KT. The use of benchmarking to identify top performing critical care units: A preliminary assessment of their policies and practices. Journal of Critical Care 2003; 18: 76-86. 15. Adu-Gyamfi Y, Al-Ghassab G, Al-Suleiman SA, Al-Sibai εH, Wosornu δ. Evaluation of an intensive care unit in a teaching hospital in Saudi Arabia. Int Surg 1992; 77: 216-218. 16. Glance δG, Szalados JE. Benchmarking in Critical Care: The Road Ahead. Chest 2002; 121: 326-328. 17. Clermont G, Angus DC, DiRusso Sε, Griffin ε, δindeZwırble WT. Predicting hospital mortality for patients in the intensive care unit: A comparison of artificial 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 neural networks with logistic regression models. Journal of Critical Care εedicine 2001; 29: 291- 296. 18. Teres D, δemeshow S. As American as apple pie and APACHE: acute physiology and chronic health evaluation. Journal of Critical Care εedicine 1998; 26: 12971298. 19. Pronovost PJ, Angus DC, Dorman T, Robinson KA, Dremsizov TT, Young Tδ. Physicians staffing patterns and clinical outcomes in critically ill patients: A systematic review. Journal of American εedical Association 2002; 288: 2151-2162. 1 4 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Nouf Almroani M.A Composition and Literature Indiana University of Pennsylvania The Essence of African American Women Identity in Warriors Don’t Cry Abstract: During the Civil Right εovements, black women endured the pain of segregation, the terror of white violence and brutality, discrimination in employment and education, and also the demoralization of verbal abuse. They felt that they should liberate themselves from social, educational and political oppression. This paper discusses the discovery of εelba Beals’s authentic self in her memoir Warriors Don’t Cry. This paper aims to show how Beals could survive being one of the nine black students who were accepted in the δittle Rock High school in 1957 by understanding her identity as a black women based on other black women experiences in overcoming some racial and social adversities. After gaining the awareness of understanding the self-worth and the cruel reality of black women at that time, she could assert herself in the society and become nationally recognized by fighting to gain equal rights. All these points are analyzed and discussed through εary Eagleton theoretical feminist criticism about the essence of women’s identity. The Essence of African American Women Identity in Warriors Don’t Cry Warrior’s Don’t Cry is a memoir written in 1994 by εelba Beals based on her dramatic story of the integration of the Central Rock High School in Arkansas in 1957. In fact, Beals’ memoir tells the story of herself and another eight students who were the first African American students to be integrated into the Central High school and become historical heroes. In her memoir, she explains the physical and emotional abuse that she and the δittle Rock nine faced and tolerated during their days at school, and how they made whites’ brutality be nationally recognized. In fact, this issue did not go well with the white community who was segregating and humiliating African Americans to keep them in their place. In his article, “Segregation”, Steven δawson, stated that “Racial segregation was a system derived from the efforts of white Americans to keep African Americans in a subordinate status by denying them equal access to public facilities and ensuring that blacks lived apart from whites” )δawson). Beals’ memoir also emphasizes how African Americans fought hard to gain equal educational rights that cost them a lot of things. They sacrificed themselves and put their families under threat all the time and endured harsh personal and social adversities. Allison Berg argued in her article “Trauma And Testimony in Black Women's Civil Rights εemoirs: The εontgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It Warriors Don't Cry, and From the εississippi Delta”, that African American activist women’s memoirs written by Gibson Robinson, εelba Beals and Endesha Holland are significant not only because they shed the light on the struggle of individual women during the movement, but how their memoirs shaped the awareness about the harsh maltreatment from white people during the civil right movement and how their memoirs are worth more scholarly attention. 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 On the other hand, Kelly Adams analyzed the literate experiences of εelba Patillo Beals, Anne Braden, Daisy Bates, and Sarah Patten Boyle during the 1950s and 1960s. Adams analyzed their memoirs and the role that the press played in framing these memoirs in the contemporary sociopolitical landscape. This specified focus contributes to the discussion of women’s engagement in the Civil Rights εovements. Furthermore, in discussing the stand-off at δittle Rock in 1957, Kirk in his article, “Crisis at Central High”, explained how Elizabeth Ann Eckford and the other eight students found themselves embroiled in a struggle between federal and state power and, how they put themselves in a danger to assert the Blacks’ rights of freedom and equality. In fact, Kirk highlighted how the Court found that the doctrine had no place in public education and how integration was terribly rejected by the white community. In her book, How δong? How δong? African-American Women in the Struggle for Civil Rights, Belinda Robnett retold the movement through the voices and eyes of African American women activists and participants. Robnett analyzed the gender relations during the movement and how the researchers marginalized and neglected women's emotional and physical suffering that they tolerated side by side with Black men'. In fact, εary Eagleton in her theoretical and illuminating book working with feminist criticism, pinpointed the essence of women’s identity especially in the section of the politics of δocation. In this section, Eagleton tackles important questions that revolve around women’s identity and her role of existing. In fact, my approach views the εelba character under these questions, Who am I? Where I am δocated? Who are we? The focus on these questions highlights the importance of finding the subject. Eagleton articulates that these questions assist the female writers such as εelba Beals to find their own identity through viewing the subject, space, and societal as well as cultural questions )Eagleton 202). In fact, εelba’s evocation of her strong identity in opposing the dominant hegemony which has been constructed against the African American people builds the central cause of this paper. After reading εelba’s struggle against racism, these questions form the characteristics of εelba’s identity through the different concepts were productive in multiple ways. These multiple ways refer to εelba’s efforts to know herself, her location, and the dominant ideologies that surrounded her society. Who am I? εelba recognized herself as a young African American woman who was born on Pearl Harbor Day in 1941. εelba was told by her family that she was hospitalized racially in a white’s hospital that neglected to give her necessary care for a head infection and she nearly died and did not get better until her mother started the treatment process. εelba could not understand how she is recognized by the white society as a Black person who should be treated according to color and race. εoreover, she could not understand why she is segregated from different places that was only allowed for whites, and she writes some of her experiences with discrimination especially in public places. She stated for instance “there is no space for you here”, “you don’t belong here, picaninny” )Beals 4). after living and being involved in different segregated and discriminated situations, εelba raised many wonders to really know who is she and why she is different which was hard for a young aged girl to be understood. As a result, she became aware of the essence of her real identity as African American women who is equal to everyone regardless of the 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 society’s recognition. εelba Knew that “Nobody presents you with a handbook when you’re teething and says, “Here’s how you must behave as a second-class citizen” )Beals 3). In fact, the gaudiness of εelba’s awareness did not come only from her experience of segregation and discrimination practiced against African American people in the society, but from being raised by her grandmother India and her mother δois. She recognizes that being an African American woman did not prevent her grandmother India Peyton, who was a strong woman with great deal of faith and love for her God, from being a self-educated woman who did not choose to work as a maid when the domestic domain was the only thing African American women depended on financially at that time. In her article, “What We Can δearn of Resilience from Older African-American Women: Interviews with Women Who Worked as εaids in the Deep South”, Katherine Van Wormer examines the personal narration of three older African-American women one of whom was Oprah Winfrey’s grandmother. In narrating her grandmother’s story, Winfrey stated how her grandmother’s biggest dream was to work for kind white folks who might treat her with dignity )Van 410). εoreover, εelba states that her grandmother “had not finished high school, but she had read lots of books, and she studied everything and everybody all the time” )Beals 13). What is more about grandma India is how she taught εelba to take pride in who she is even when the present circumstances of racism at that time did not reflect anything positive about treating African Americans. And this is what Patricia Collins proves in her book Black Feminist Thoughts, she states that, “Black mothers are often described as strong disciplinarians and overly protective; yet these same women manage to raise daughters who are self-reliant and assertive” )Collins 125). As a matter of fact, grandma India’s powerful words and distinctive personality helped εelba to think of herself as a strong African American woman who should has a strong believe in herself whatever she is, regardless of bad social treatment against African Americans. Her grandmother’s dignity helped εelba also to think strongly about what her grandmother could overcome, and challenged to assert herself under a harsh circumstance of racism and segregation, could be also easy to overcome by her if she believes in herself. εelba’s mother δois Pattillo, who was one of the first African American graduates of the University of Arkansas in 1954 and a high school English teacher at the time of the δittle Rock Nine integration of Central High School, played a big role in illuminating her daughter’s desires of studying at the Central High School. Grandmother India worked hard to push her daughter δois in her educational life; and she was taking care of εelba and her brother, Conrad, while her daughter δois was a graduate student when such educational status was rare for an African American woman. The help that δois got from her mother during her life as a mother and student at the same time, helped her to be financially and socially independent, and made her be more confident about herself as an African American woman. Collins explains the big role of African American mothers in the way they raise their daughters to be strong and dignified. She stated “Black daughters learn to expect to work, to strive for an education so they can support themselves, and to anticipate carrying heavy responsibilities in their families and communities” )Collins 123). And this is what grandmother India did with her daughter δois and it resulted as putting her in a good educational and social position. As an outstanding well educated women, δois tried hard to raise her kids in a house which is brimming with education, confidence and knowledge. It is worth 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 noting that she got divorced from her husband, Howell, because he refused to complete his study and get a college degree when he was financially independent and had a good job in the outdoor railroad. However, δois’ divorce decision made εelba think that women could succeed without men’s support; and education is the most important thing to achieve. In fact, δois followed her mother India’s footsteps in making her daughter εelba be more confident about her decision of integrating the Central High when a lot of African American people were against the law of integration. Truth to be told, African Americans did that because of the hardships that they may face as a consequences of εelba’s decision of integrating the Central; and her father, Howell, was one of them. He was not satisfied with his daughter’s decision, and he did not encourage her like how her mother and grandmother did. In fact, Blacks fears about the integration were in its place because white fanatics kept threating the nine students and families by phone and by gathering in mobs to show their rejection of desegregation, and this thing caused them a lot of troubles especially with their social relationships. However, δois had the most influential role in εelba’s self-confidence and highly encouraged her to tackle her new life at the Central. εelba explained how her mother gave her a positive push to calm down her fears of what she was expecting to face at the school. Her mother said to her, “εake this day the best you can”, “δet’s bow our heads for a word of pray” )Beals 93). In fact, mother δois knew that it will be very challenging for εelba to take this step, but at the same time she knew that her daughter will be able to lead the change as she did. Collins emphases that African American women can indirectly inspire other women who may hesitate to take action and prove themselves. Collins stated, “The importance of black women’s leadership in producing Black feminist thought does not mean that others cannot participate. It does mean that the primary responsibility for defining one’s own reality lies with the people who live that reality, who actually have those experiences.” )Collins 34). And this indicates that εelba was able to engage in the school integration battle with a high guarantee that she can make a difference in helping her people to get good educational chances as her mother did in asserting herself in getting a good education when educational status was rare for African American women. After understanding her mother and grandmother’s self-confidence about themselves and how they break the stereotypical image of African American women at their age, εelba could understand who is she and how she is strong and able to lead the change as her mother and grandmother mother did. Where I am δocated? What is more about the strength that εelba reached in a young age, comes from understanding how Black women around her were physically and mentally abused. Danielle εcGuire in her book, At the Dark End of the Street, highlighted the worst sexual, mental and physical abuses that African American women suffered due to whites’ racism and contempt towards Black people, while the solidarity with them was not existent. African American women were raped, beaten and sexually harassed without any justice and legal protection. They also were molested everywhere in public, at work and even at their houses and in front of their children. εcGuire stated one story about Fannie Hamer and how her mother and grandmother told her that, “black women’s body was never hers alone” )εcGuire192) and this explains how white folks were abusing them sexually without even thinking about them as a human who was worth respect and equal treatment. In talking about her 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 mother’s suffering, Hamer narrates that her mother, Bramlett, had twenty of twentythree children as a products of rape )εcGuire191). εcGuire also highlighted how Africans Americans were angry and unsatisfied about how the harassers and abusers were not criminalized legally. Africans Americans complained, “We did not have as much protection as a dog down there,” )εcGuire 174). εelba mentioned her attempted rape when she was twelve years old. When she at that time did not know what does rape mean. εelba stated in mentioning what happened to her when a white man tried to rape her, “He pulled me down and turned me down on my back”, “I scratched and kicked and thrashed against him with every ounce of strength I could master” )Beals 15). It was obvious that the white man’s sexual harassment was a result of his disagreement of the Supreme Court law of integration, he said to εelba, “I’ll show you niggers that the Supreme Court can’t run my life” )Beals 16). Being a victim of white man’s sexual abuse, εelba became more passionate to challenge herself and her society and prove that threating her or abusing any Black women in any way would not prevent them from getting their rights of getting equal educational opportunities. Where she signed her name to integrate the Central high school, she stated, “When my teacher asked if anyone who lived within the Central High School district wanted to attend school with white people, I raised my hand. As I signed my name on the paper they passed around, I thought about all those times I’d gone past Central High, waiting to see inside. I was certain it would take a miracle to integrate δittle Rock’s school. But I reasoned that if schools were open to my people, I would also get access to other opportunities I had been denied” )Beals 19). However, regardless of the social threat and her experience with the attempted rape, εelba decided immediately to integrate the Central High when she got the chance to do so. And this strongly shows how εelba believed in herself regardless of the harsh expected concrescences that might happen to her. Who are we? By focusing deeply on εelba’s battle at the Central High School, we can realize how strong and patient she and the other eight students were, even under the harsh circumstances of the physical, verbal and the mental abuse. In fact, verbal abuse was something normal to live with during her day at school. εelba mentioned how even students at the school did not call her by her name, they were always calling her nigger. εelba stated in describing how she was called, “Niggers, niggers, the niggers are her” They were talking about me. The shouting wouldn’t stop; it got louder as more joined in” )Beals 72). εelba mentioned how her friend Elizabeth handled her fears and stood with dignity in the middle of the huge angry mob in the first day at the Central. εelba stated, “As she turned toward us, her eyes hidden by dark glasses, we could see how erect and proud she stood despite the fear she must have been feeling” )Beals 36). εoreover, εelba was abused physically at the school, she mentioned, “The boy flashed a shiny black object in my face” )Beals 121), which in fact was an Acid. What was great in this point, is how εelba did not give up going to school when she was totally sure that all students would keep treating her so bad. In fact, εelba did not get help even when she was reporting the students’ abuse. One day, she tried to get help from her teacher, but unfortunately her teacher told her, “I hope you don’t think we’re gonna browbeat our student to please you’all” )Beals 98). In pinpointing the strength of African American women, εelba described how she was fascinated by Daisy Bates, the president of the National Association for the 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Advancement of Colored People “NAACP”. Daisy owned the Arkansas State Press, the newspaper that was the reflection of the community. Daisy was covering everything about the nine students’ hardships at the school. Carolyn Thomas stated in her article, “Daisy Bathes and the δittle Rock School Crisis Forging the way”, that “For the first time in Arkansas, and with growing confidence and audacity, an African American women publicly rose to assert that she could cure the ills of society with her intellect and organizational skills” )qtd.n Thomas 623). In fact, εelba knows how much suffering Daisy endured in raising the awareness of whites’ brutality and racism against Africans American. And how she did not give up making whites’ brutality be more nationally recognized. According to εelba ,“she seemed very calm and brave considering the caravans of segregations said to be driving past her house and tossing firebombs and rocks through her window” )Beals 25). εelba’s mother and grandmother had a big impact in εelba’s identity and strength; and did not stop supporting her while she was studying at the Central High. Truth to be told, both of them took brave actions. For instance, through the ordeal of being threatened all the time by phone or by letters, the grandmother India was always ready to take an action and protect her family. εelba wrote a situation when she described how her grandmother was always having a pistol just in cast if anything happens. When her grandmother was talking with the messengers sent by the government, “How can we help you?” Grandmother lowered the gun to her side, keeping it hidden as she opened the front door” )Beals 92). In fact, εelba chose to write a lot of her grandmother India attitudes that helped her think deeply about herself and how she should handle ordeals. In addition, εelba mentioned how her mother δois lost hear teaching job at the Central High because of her daughter. εelba stated, "They say they'll give me back my job only if I withdraw εelba from Central High School immediately. They do not want her to finish the year." )Beals 203). εoreover, the school informed mother δois that her contract will be extend and she will be giving a substantial raise if she removes εelba from the Central High school. In fact, it was too hard for δois to lose her job while she was responsible for supporting her family financially. εother δois fought for getting her job back by asking a reporter to make her losing job story be nationally recognized. Interestingly, mother δois’s story became a headline in the newspapers; and as a result of the social interaction with her story, she got her job back. However, if mother δois did not take this step, she would lose her social and educational passion which she fought to reach. εoreover, she knew that if she agreed to remove εelba from the Central High, εelba might become very weak in handling the social oppressing in the future when she already started asserting herself by challenging the social rejection of Blacks by engaging in the integrational issue. In fact, εelba was so happy about her mother’s reaction which was very rational and smart. However, what mother δois did match the idea of wisdom that Collins highlighted; she stated, “δiving life as Black women requires wisdom because knowledge about the dynamic of race, gender, and class oppression has been essential to black women’s survival” )Collins 208). At the end of the memoir, εelba wrote about her interracial marriage. She married a white solider, John, and has one daughter, Kellie. Truth to be told, εelba and her husband break up because John wanted her to be a housewife while she wanted to be a news reporter. εelba’s divorced decision reflects how her social, educational and economic independence were more important than being a housewife and taking care of children. She knew that being a mother and a wife did not prevent 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 her mother δois from being a successful and remarkable woman. εelba chose to not sacrifice herself after fighting to be equal with everyone. Agreeing to be a housewife meant segregating her from who she is in her inner self. Overall, based on εary Eagleton’s questions, εelba could explain how she reached a full understanding of herself based on how African American women like her mother, grandmother and εrs. Daisy, could handle the issues of segregation. Based on that, she believed in herself and her ability to lead the change as they did. Furthermore, by understanding how African American women were treated, she had the courage to assert herself by deciding to study at the Central High School, and she believed that taking this step would guarantee her right of being treated equally and respectfully. However, even when she had not been treated in a good way, she proved that her race, color and gender would not prevent her from her right of getting a good education, marrying a white man, and then having choice to divorce to break the gender role. Works cited Beals, εelba. Warriors Don't Cry: A Searing εemoir of the Battle to Integrate δittle Rock's Central High. New York: Pocket Books, 1994. Print. Berg, Allison. "Trauma And Testimony In Black Women's Civil Rights εemoirs: The εontgomery Bus Boycott And The Women Who Started It, Warriors Don't Cry, And From The εississippi Delta." Journal Of Women's History 21.3 )2009): 84-107. εδA International Bibliography. Web. 7 Dec. 2015. Calloway-Thomas, Carolyn, and Thurmon Garner. "Daisy Bates and the δittle Rock School Crisis: Forging the Way." Journal of Black Studies 1996: 623. JSTOR Journals. Web. 7 Dec. 2015. Eagleton, εary. Working with Feminist Criticism. Oxford, OX, UK: Blackwell Publishers, 1996. Print. Hill, Collins P. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print. Kirk, John A. "Crisis At Central High." History Today 57.9 )2007): 23-30. Humanities Source. Web. 7 Dec. 2015. δawson, Steven F. “Segregation.” Freedom’s Story, TeacherServe©. National Humanities Center.Web. 07 December.2015. εcGuire, Danielle δ. At the Dark End of the Street: Black Women, Rape, and Resistance a New History of the Civil Rights εovement from Rosa Parks to the Rise of Black Power. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010. Print. Robnett, Belinda. How δong? How δong? : African-American Women In The Struggle For Civil Rights. n.p.: New York : Oxford University Press, 1997., 1997. IUP PIδOT Online Catalog. Web. 7 Dec. 2015. 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 URBAN PROFILING - ASPECTS OF ADAPTION MANAGEMENT AND PROFILE ORIENTED MARKETING FOR A HIGHLY SUSTAINABLE CITY DEVELOPMENT Rebecca Reschreiter University of Latvia, Faculty of Economics and Management, Latvia Abstract Cities have always been major centers of change, social innovation and diverse development trends. Nowadays, a majority live in urban areas and they offer significant opportunities for new approaches in the management of resources as well as consistent and clearly structured future city development plans. The main purpose of this paper is an action-oriented model for strengthening and accelerating sustainable city development which is designed in the light of current and future challenges of urbanization. Already existing, management models, i.e. adaptive management and successful marketing, i.e. profile-oriented marketing are adapted from organizations and are sharpened and enriched in their application to cities. The focus lies on the usability of these marketing concepts to increase development quality and the sustainability of urban spaces within city structures. This work addresses public managers and city planners and shall help them prioritize and tackle next innovative and future steps to foster and establish a clearly structured future vision and profile to guarantee a high quality of living and sustainable urban development. A new dynamic profiling model, i.e. the adaptive urban profiling model, shall provide solutions to optimize the urban living environment and increase the visibility and uniqueness of competitive sustainable urban structures. Keywords: adaption management, city marketing, urban/city development, profileoriented marketing, sustainability INTRODUCTION Currently, about 50% of the human population is living in cities )εahrer and Halper, 2012, p. 9). In 2030 over 5 billion people will be city inhabitants and it is expected that this number will increase to two thirds )80%) of the world’s population by 2050. The Increasing urbanization is a key trend and the design of city systems will play an essential role in shaping a sustainable, innovative and livable future in cities. The importance of urban living space is constantly increasing, as cities are the housing-, work-, and life-centers of a majority of people. Cities are the carriers and pioneers of socio-economic change. According to Fraunhofer experts, sustainable cities are the key to a sustainable future )Fraunhofer, 2014, p. 6 Phase II). This development increases the demands in for city development planning )Welch Guerra, 2010, p. 5). In order to provide a secure social and economic environment for their residents to live and work in, cities definitely need clearly structured and consistent development plans to make sure that the short-, middle- and long-term requirements of the citizens are met as best as possible. Recently, the adaptive urban profiling model was presented as a roadmap to such a structured and consistent development plan )Reschreiter, 2016). The adaptive urban profiling model was developed from an analysis of the similarities between city development management and marketing. 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Globalization is the major challenge for both, city development as well as for marketing. The constant growth of cities creates an environment in which cities are challenged to compete with each other for citizens and organizations )Heinrichs, 1999, p. 9). Thus, cities are facing similar challenges, as companies on a free market. Both cities and companies do now exist in an international environment requiring global thinking and increasing interconnectedness to other cities and companies. Globalization results in increasing competition among both cities and companies. Current conditions are characterized by an extraordinary level of uncertainty and dynamics. The environment of cities and organizations is constantly changing at an increasingly faster rate. In order to survive, both cities and companies have to increase their adaptive capacity. In order to achieve and sustain competitive advantage, both cities and companies are forced to explore sophisticated management models )Porter, 2013). Based on these similarities it was possible to apply current trends in marketing to city development management. These trends include profile oriented marketing on the one hand and adaption management on the other hand. The current paper will take a closer look at the profile included in the adaptive urban profiling model. At the 2005 World Summit on Social Development )United Nations General Assembly, 2005; Figure 1), three intertwined sustainable development goals were identified: )i) economic development, )ii) social development, )iii) environmental protection. Figure 1: The three pillars of sustainable development and their interrelation )Adams, 2006, p. 2.). These goals have to be implemented at the local level, i.e. they have to be integrated into city development plans. Thus, city development planners are challenged to direct their cities development in accordance with the goals of sustainable development, i.e. while protecting the environment. On the other hand, city development planners are challenged by the goal that said development of their city should be sustainable in itself, i.e. their cities processes should be able to endure in the context of rapid international change. A major challenge at the social level is civic participation. Civic participation refers to the participation of citizens in political decisions and planning processes )Novak, 2006). Historically, civic participation aims at achieving more direct forms of democracy. Thus, city development has to balance the global goals of responding to demographic change and globalization and ensuring the sustainability of the environment and itself, while locally taking into account the needs and wishes of each individual citizen. THE ADAPTIVE URBAN PROFIδING εODEδ 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The adaptive urban profiling model is designed as an action oriented, threedimensional profiling model for sustainable urban development. It represents the basis for developing strategies or roadmaps for defining the trajectories of transition for today´s cities. The adaptive urban profiling model merges profile-oriented marketing with adaption management. Profile-oriented marketing Profile oriented marketing adds a new dimension to the concept of marketing: the philosophy. Profile Oriented εarketing is strategic marketing with a profile. The profile is the pivotal point in Kellner’s profiling structure model. A profile is a bundle of individual, as unique as possible characteristics of a communality. These characteristics include )i) the quality statement )mission), )ii) the aspired state )vision), )iii) a clear and valid mind-set )principles), )iv) the appearance )corporate identity). εission, vision and principles are summarized into the first level of the profile, i.e. the overall concept. The corporate identity and marketing promises are summarized into the second level, i.e. the appearance of a profile )compare Figure 2). As outlined in Figure 1, the profile is derived from a detailed analysis of the existing strength and weaknesses of a city or organization. The analysis is the first step of profile-oriented marketing. The identified strength and weaknesses are integrated into the overall concept, which points out the strength to be built upon and the weaknesses to be improved. The overall concept can also be viewed as a cities or organizations identity. It represents an abstract set of principles to guide the concrete actions of managers and municipals. What these concrete actions include is summarized in the mission element of the overall concept )compare also Kotler, 1988, p. 43) and complemented by the vision element. The vision element includes the view of the city that should be achieved in the intermediate future )e.g. Bleicher, 2004, p. 105; Kotler, 2003, p. 165). From the abstract principles, mission and vision, fixed rules and guidelines for behavior can be derived, which represent the principles, i.e. the third element of the overall concept. In order to achieve the goal formulated in the vision, the behavior of managers or municipals should not deviate from these principles while performing the task of the mission. A violation of these principles would mean a deviation from the profile, i.e. a change in identity. The appearance level is guided by the overall concept level, i.e. the appearance of a city should reflect its mission, vision and guiding principles to be perceived by the outside world )e.g. Wahrig, 2001, p. 435). A cities appearance can be the more consistent, the more clearly the overall concept is formulated. εarketing promises provide a clear commitment to citizens, companies and tourists. For cities, these promises can be formulated in a city slogan, which helps to establish civic identity, makes the community recognizable by outsiders and attracts people to the community by promoting pride and unity )εuench, 1993). Thereby city slogans also increase the economic value of cities )εuench, 1993). εarketing promises transport the mission, vision and guiding principles to the customer, which in the case of cities are i.e. citizens, companies and tourists. The rules of appearance are comprised by the corporate identity. An integral part of a cities corporate identity can be a flagship building. 1 4 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Figure 2: Profiling Structure εodel )Kellner, 2007, p. 60 translated) Profile oriented marketing is particularly suitable to increase the attractiveness of a city, as it specifically aims to further development, i.e. also city development. The profile gives an organization a clear future perspective and direction of development. Thus the same should apply to sustainable urban development. Among the most important developments appear are the creation of niches and a decrease in competition. A well characterized, clearly defined profile emotionally distinguishes a city from competing cities and allows it to occupy its own, well defined emotional space/niche. However, for organizations, the people that have to foremost identify with the organization are not only costumers, but the employees have to make profileoriented marketing successful. Thus, city marketing can only be successful if tourists, organizations and citizens alike identify with the city. Profile oriented marketing allows city marketing to be consistent at all levels. In summary, the profile is the result of constant analysis and prognosis of the city, its environment, the competitors and a prognosis of future developments. Once the profile is established clear goals can be defined and strategies and measures to achieve these goals can be developed. These strategies can then be realized by a strict organization and control mechanisms at each implementation step )compare Figure 1). However, profile oriented marketing makes two assumptions that do not necessarily apply to modern cities. First, at the initial analysis of strength and weaknesses, not all information may be available, i.e. the analysis and prognosis may be based on uncertain information. Second, strategies may fail because information changes over time. In that case, it is important to be able to go back to the beginning or to an earlier stage of the problem and start again. This is however not possible in the profiling structure model. It is however possible in adaption management, which is seldom integrated into city development plans. Therefore, elements of adaption management were integrated with Kellners profiling 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 model to form the adaptive urban profiling model. Adaption management In the 1970s, a group of ecologists introduced adaptive management as a continuous systematic process for improving management practices by learning from the outcomes of previous decisions )Intaver Institute, 2014). Thus, adaption management basically implies „learning by doing’ and adapting based on what’s learned )Walters and Holling 1990). The best management strategy is determined by experimentation, which in the long term shall reduce uncertainties, which arise from natural variability, incomplete data or social and economic change )National Research Council, 2004). Projects are managed based on learning from actual project performance via the use of quantitative methods. εost importantly, adaptive management aims at a timely response to change, i.e. flexibility in decisions. As change is rapid not only in the field of ecology, the concept of adaption management was soon applied outside the field of ecology. Adaptive capacity refers to the capacity of a system to adapt to environmental changes. Diversity, flexibility and creativity are catch phrases associated with adaptive capacity. In ecology, the survival of a system is correlated to the diversity of different species inhabiting it, since a high diversity allows for the occupation of different niches )Walters, 1986; Gunderson & Holling, 2001). Similarly, the adaptive capacity of cities is also influenced by social factors )Klein and Smith, 2003; Brooks and Adger 2005; Tompkins, 2005; Berkhout, 2006). Diversity allows for a higher flexibility, larger common knowledge, creativity of decisions and responsive power structures, which determine the adaptive capacity of social systems )Gunderson & Holling, 2001). Therefore, the adaptive urban profiling model includes elements of adaption management into the profiling structure model in order to develop a new urban profiling system to be utilized to create resilient cities by enhancing their adaptive capacity. Within adaption management, different approaches can be distinguished, i.e. passive and active adaption management )National Research Counsil, 2004; Salafsky et al. 1991). The main distinction between these approaches is that passive adaptive management focuses less on the reduction of uncertainty than active adaption management )Walters 1986; Williams 2011). Therefore, the elements integrated into the adaptive urban profiling model mirror active adaption management. εerging profile-oriented marketing and adaption management to the adaptive urban profiling model The two-dimensional Profiling εodel from Kellner is portrayed in the shape of an hour-glass )compare Figure 2). Since urban transformation processes gain more and more complexity, It is therefore too constant and not flexible enough for an individual sustainable development process. A dynamic combination of solutions at the urban level can increase the overall sustainability of the city. The model has to be more flexible, complex and dynamic. Therefore, the adaptive urban profiling model has been fitted in spiral form with a multi-layered system )Figure 3). As suggested by adaption management, it can therefore repeat the process represented in Kellner’s hourglass an infinite number of times by continuously monitoring the success of the initially derived measures and reevaluating the initial analysis. The transition from implementation of measures to starting a new analysis and prognosis process is fluent, but each repetition is centered around the profile as an anchoring point. While the profile provides the city with the stability to encounter radical environmental changes, adaption management processes increase the resilience and 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 sustainability of the achieved city development plan. Figure 3: Adaptive urban profiling model, own representation by author By incorporating elements of adaption management, the adaptive urban profiling model introduces a higher degree of flexibility into the cities profile than the original formulation by Kellner suggests. If the profile is too fixed, it will diminish the cities adaptive capacity, i.e. its ability to react to unexpected change in a flexible way. Profile-oriented marketing starts with an analysis of the problem before developing a profile and strategies to solve the problem and further the development of the organization or city. Here the goal of the analysis is to crystallize the profile by understanding the strength and weaknesses of a city. In the original model Kellner proposes that the analysis step also has to include a “prognosis” of the performance of a city in the near future )Kellner, 2007, p. 62). He suggests questionnaires, expert interviews and extrapolation from previous experience as methods of prognosis. In the sense of adaption management however, the prognosis step should rather be viewed as a hypothesis generation step, which includes more flexibility in the model. Rather 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 than assuming that the situation of the city will develop in a certain way in the near future, it is predicted that if certain criteria apply, the city should develop in a certain way. If information changes, such that those criteria don’t apply anymore, the city development planner can go back to the analysis step at any time and develop new adapted hypotheses. Thus, adaptive urban profiling has to bridge the complicated tasks of preserving the cities identity while maintaining a high degree of behavioral flexibility. One way to do that is to integrate flexibility into the guiding principles. Another way is to keep the guiding principles as basic as possible. The overall concept is specifically requested to only include a selection of characteristics. Thus, it is the task of the analysis step to identify the strengths of the city to be included into this concept and it is the task of the prognosis step to identify the weaknesses to be improved that are to be included in the vision statement. In accordance with the idea of adaption management, it should always be possible to go back if several attempts to improve a certain weakness fails and select another weakness to improve. The current paper presents another option that makes the selection of characteristics to pursue easier for municipals and shall help them bridge the gap between stability and flexibility: the triple-bottom-line. A TRIPδE BOTTOε-δINE FOR THE ADAPTIVE URBAN PROFIδING εODEδ It is a challenge to bridge the gap between providing a clear perspective and keeping values constant and recognizable, as intended by the profile, on the one hand, and constantly updating and flexibly changing marketing strategies on the other hand. Cities are complex formations by nature and already include an option to manage this task in their structure. Within the Analysis and Prognosis Step, Kellner )2007, p. 62) distinguishes between the city itself, its environment and the market, although these areas are intertwined with each other. While the city itself includes all aspects of the city that city development planners can influence, all factors that city development planners cannot influence are subsummized under environment. This is also the area for which prognosis has to deal with the most uncertainties. He defines the market as the temporal coincidence of demand and supply. In city marketing the special situation occurs that demanding and supplying party may be virtually the same, i.e. citizens of the city that create their own living environment with the goal for a better quality of life, or organizations that boost the economy of a location by investing in it. An especially usefull tool as a starting point for such an analysis of the current situation appears to be the Fraunhofer εorgenstadt approach. The Fraunhofer Society research innovation network initiated the εorgenstadt: City Insights an City of the Future “ε:CI” initiative which has been designed as a pioneering project between industry, cities and research that addresses the growing issue of sustainable cities at an early stage from a systematic and integrated perspective. Each city is individual and the approach has been developed to assess a city as an individual complex system. The adaptive urban profiling system proposed here shall do the same. )Bullinger, 2014, p. 2) It is suggested that similar measures as used in the current thesis for testing the adaptive urban profiling model )see dependent variables) are also utilized by city development managers for the analysis and prognosis step of their urban profiling. Thus, the “εorgenstadt model” from the Fraunhofer research society is here put at the start of the process as a suggestion for what an initial analysis of the city can look like. The Fraunhofer εorgenstadt approach assesses 100 urban indicators based on the ISO 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 37120. They distinguish between: State indicators: the current state of a range of sectors in a city Pressure indicators: pressures that impact on a city Impact indicators: the current impact that the city has on economy, society and environment Roughly, it can be said that the state indicators analyse the city itself, the pressure indicators its environment and the impact indicators the market. Thereby, the profile automatically gets a triple-bottom line )Figure 4), i.e. it includes three domains )social, economic, ecological), which correspond to the three pillars of sustainable development identified at the 2005 World Summit on Social Development )compare Figure 1). Balancing social, economic, and ecologic aspects for enhancing sustainability shall serve as the right guiding framework for analysis and classification in this approach. Figure 4: Profile with a triple-bottom line, own representation based on Fraunhofer εorgenstadt εodel Thus, a cities profile becomes more specific and needs a distinguishing characteristic in each of these domains in order to achieve long-term sustainability. Thus, the mission should incorporate a selection of social, economic and ecological strength and weaknesses and the vision formulate an aspired state for each of these domains. Also guiding principles of behavior should not be unilateral to one of these dimensions, but should formulate social, economic and ecological rules. The integration of a triple bottom line into the profile provides it with the necessary support to maintain identity while adaptively changing in the light of new findings. If some aspects of the profile have to be reformulated in one of the domains )social, economic, ecological), consistency can be achieved via the other domains. This idea 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 of pursuing several ideas in different areas simultaneously is strongly supported by adaption management. CONCδUSIONS Adaptive urban profiling has already been presented as a useful tool for municipals to enhance sustainable city development. They can increase their cities attractiveness by providing it with a clear profile, which also leads to identification, that is recognized around the world on the one hand, while flexibly adapting to change if necessary. In the current paper an additional feature of the adaptive urban profiling model was presented that shall make the task of maintaining a stable profile while constantly adapting it, easier: the triple-bottom line. The profile has now been specified to include distinguishing characteristics in three domains: social, economic and ecological. Thus, if change is necessary in one of the domains, the profile will still be recognizable via keeping the other two domains stable during this process. Thereby, the adaptive urban profiling model has now incorporated the three pillars of sustainable urban development. References Adams, W.ε. )2006). The Future of Sustainability: Rethinking Environment and Development in the Twenty-first Century. Report of the IUCN Renowned Thinkers εeeting, 29–31 January 2006. Bleicher, K. )2004). Das Konzept Integriertes εanagement: Visionen - εissionen Programme, Auflage: 7, Campus Verlag; Frankfurt/εain Brooks, N. & Adger, E.N. )2005). Assessing and enhancing adaptive capacity. In: δim, B., Spanger-Soegfried, E., Burton, I., εalone, E.δ. & Huq, S. )Eds.). Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change. Cambridge University Press: New York, 165-182. Fraunhofer IAO )2014). Joint Research Project εorgenstadt: City Insights II )20142015), Fraunhofer-society: Stuttgart. Gunderson, δ. )1999). Resilience, flexibility and adaptive management—Antidotes for spurious certitude? Conservation Ecology 3)1):7. Gunderson, δ.H. & Holling, C.S. )2001). Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems. Island Press: Washington. Heinrichs, W. )1999) )2012). Kulturmanagement. Eine praxisorientierte Einführung, 2.nd Edition. Primus Verlag: Darmstadt. p. 9. 3rd Edition. Wissenschaftl. Buchgesellsch. Intaver Institute )2014). Adaptive Project εanagement. In: http://www.intaver.com/Articles/Article_AdaptativeProjectεanagement.pdf )last viewed: 11.10. 2015) Kellner, K. )2007). Kommunale Profilierung – Ein neuer Ansatz für das Consulting in der Angewandten Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeographie. Geographica Augustana: Augsburg. p.60 Klein, R.J.T. & Smith, J.B. )2003). Enhancing the capacity of developing countries to adapt to climate change: a policy relevant research agenda. In: Smith, J.B., Klein, R.J.T. & Huq, S. )Eds.). Climate Change, Adaptive Capacity and Development. Imperial College Press: δondon, 317-334. Kotler, P. & Armstrong, G. )1988). εarketing. Wien Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Saunders, J. & Wong, V. )2003). Grundlagen des εarketing. 3rd Edition, εünchen. εahrer, H., Halper, D. )2012). Urbane δebenswelten – Ideen für die Stadt der Zukunft. Noir: Vienna. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 National Research Council )2004). Adaptive Management for Water Resources Project Planning. The National Academies Press: Washington DC. Porter, ε. E. )2013). Economic and Social development. The New δearning. Harvard Business School Press: Boston. Americas Competitiveness Forum, Panama City, Panama, October 4, 2013 Reschreiter, R. )2016). Urban profiling - Aspects of profile oriented marketing and adaption management for a sustainable city development Salafsky, N., εargoluis, R., & Redford, K. )2001). Adaptive εanagement: A Tool for Conservation Practitioners. Washington, DC: Biodiversity Support Program Tompkins, E. )2005). Planning for climate change in small islands: insights from national hurricane preparedness in the Cayman Islands. Global Environ. Chang. 15, 139 United Nations General Assembly )2005). 2005 World Summit Outcome, Resolution A/60/1, adopted by the General Assembly on 15 September 2005. Retrieved on: 27.12.2015 Walters, C. (1986). Adaptive Management of Renewable Resources. Macmillan: New York. Walters, C. J., & Holling, C.S. )1990). δarge-scale management experiments and learning by doing. Ecology 71: 2060-2068 Williams, B.K. (2011). Adaptive management of natural resources – framework and issues. Journal of Environmental Management 92, 1346-1353. Welch Guerra, ε. )2010). "Städtebau“ und „Stadtplanung“. In: Sulzer, J. )Hrsg.) Schriftenreihe Stadtentwicklung und Denkmalpflege Intraurban. Stadt erfinden, erproben, erneuern. Band 13, Jovis Verlag : Berlin, p. 5 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 INFLUENCE OF PRINCIPALS’ ETHICAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS ON TEACHERS’ LEVEL OF COMMITMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA. BY CAROL O. EZEUGBOR, Ph.D And Prof. NKECHI IKEDIUGWU DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND POLICY, NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA, ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA. Abstract: The study was conducted to determine the influence of principals’ ethical leadership behaviours on teachers’ level of commitment in secondary schools in Anambra State. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. Two research questions guided the study and two null hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance, were formulated for the study. The population of the study consisted of 6,203 teachers )993 males and 5210 females) from the 256 secondary schools in Anambra State. The sample for the study consisted of 1,290 )645 males, 645 females) teachers chosen through simple random sampling. In each of the zones, 30% of the schools were sampled for the study )43 schools). In each of the schools, 15 males and 15 females were sampled, making a total of 1290 teachers. Data was collected using a 36-item questionnaire grouped into the four ethical leadership scales of communicative ethics, climatic ethics, ethics in decision making and behavioural ethics. The instrument was validated by three experts. For the reliability of the instrument, a co-efficient value of 0.85 was obtained and was considered high enough for the study. εean and standard deviation were used in answering the research questions. The 2-test was adopted in testing the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed that the items in the four sub-scales of ethical leadership are the school principals’ ethical leadership behaviours. Equally’ principals’ ethical leadership behaviours influence teachers’ commitment very highly. It was thus recommended that the government agencies should consistently encourage principals to always live within the confines of ethical behaviours. Keywords: Ethics, leadership, ethical leadership, teachers’ commitments. Introduction: In Nigeria, the goals of education include the development of the individual into a morally sound, patriotic and effective citizen; inculcation of national consciousness, values and national unity )FRN, 2009). Unfortunately, the attainment of these fundamental goals in the nation’s secondary education appears to be a mirage. This is informed by the belief that today more than ever, the continuous increasing waves of unethical behaviours that have engulfed every sphere of life and profession in Nigeria have also gained access into the educational institutions. Given this scenario, especially with regards to the extent and depth of their effect and span across both the school system and the society at large, the significance of an ethical leadership appears paramount. There is a conscious desire that leadership may be the key determinant in ethical engagement in educational institutions. Directly, the leadership 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 behaviours of the principals may have a spill over influence on the teachers’ sense of social justice, and level of commitment towards the entire process of teaching and learning. It is important to note that it is the duty of leaders like principals, to lay down standards for managerial goals and organizational behaviour at workplaces and subsequently establish systems that impact positively on the employees )Yukl, 2013). Furthermore, leaders at the higher level of the organization communicate initial values and guide employees in ways of attaining rewards for adhering to them. Employees also depend on their leaders for direction when they meet ethical questions. Scientific research tends to corroborate the conviction that employees will obey and stick to ethical values espoused by their leaders )Trevino & Brown, 2004). This belief conjures the fact that principals’ ethical leadership behaviours may greatly influence the teachers’ level of commitment in the secondary school system. In essence, the concept of ethics is concerned with the moral right or wrong; good or bad, just or unjust behaviours and attitudes. In this instance, ethical values can be expressed as loyalty, honesty, justice, accuracy, respect, tolerance, responsibility and courage )Nyucorong, 2014). Principals as leaders have the obligation to comply with the ethical values so as to live in love, friendship, happiness and peace with both staff and students because ethics starts and ends with human beings. In this instance, Karakose )2007) attests that principal is someone who can activate his teachers in line with mutual objectives and ethical applications. The good image of leadership in educational setting is important in understanding the nature of the school as a workplace and the quality of human interactions in schools. In a secondary school where there is a high quality of interactions among organizational members, teachers will commit themselves to work harder and make their work experience more meaningful. It therefore behoves on the principals to imbibe ethical management in their leadership as this will inspire all staff and students to work towards adopting ethical values. For a principal to be successful, Duffield and εcCuen )2000) enthused that he/she must be able to exhibit a high sense of maturity from an ethical dimension and also inspire his teachers. Khadarnhmi and Aghahoseini )2014) declared that ethical leadership indicates correct decisions and actions with good intentions and behaviours. It entails high spirit which insists on correct behaviours, logical and practical leadership with subordinates. To Kanungo )2001), ethical leaders usually engage in behaviours and activities that benefit people and avoid doing things that can cause harm to other people. Ethical leaders are characterised with fairness, sincerity, trustworthiness and openness to staff as well as others in the society. It is in corroboration to this that Yilmaz as cited by Karakose )2007), in his study developed four ethical leadership scales )EδS) which are; Communicative Ethics, Climatic Ethics, Ethics in Decision making, and Behavioural Ethics. The study revealed that the principals perform their ethical responsibilities like treating their staff justly and encouraging them, being fair, understanding, patient and humble and these traits exist in the four EδS which are adapted in this work. The over whelming importance of ethical leadership in organizational progress and survivals informs the urgent relevance of the secondary school principals to realize that good quality relationship built on respect and trust are the most important determinants of the school success and achievements. In realization of this fact, the Federal Government of Nigeria in the national policy on education )2009; 15) states 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 that the objective of junior secondary education include among others; ‘to develop patriotic young people equipped to contribute to social development and in the performance of their civic responsibilities, inculcate values and raise morally upright individuals capable of independent thinking, and who appreciate the dignity of labour’. Seemingly, the principals and teachers have the onerous task of attaining these objectives in line with the quality of education given in the schools It is therefore critical that the principal should first demonstrate his concern for the greater good by striving for fairness, respect and integrity of his teachers in other to sensitise them to commitment. Through principals’ ethical leadership, the teacher may be inspired to understand and appreciate his onerous tasks, develop self-esteem, make teaching meaningful, develop cultural sensitivity, determine core values and provide meaningful challenges in the school. He also realizes that his commitment is an investment of time with students and their individual needs, as a responsibility to impact knowledge, attitudes values and beliefs, maintaining professional knowledge and as an engagement with the school- community )δawrence & Deepa, n.d.). Teacher commitment is the key factor influencing the teaching- learning process. It is the psychological identification of the individual teacher with the school and the intention of that teacher to maintain his membership of the school, and show all personal interest. It is on this premise that Bellow )2012) sees commitment as loyalty and attachment of an individual or group to the organization. Studies have indicated that there may be a relationship between ethical leadership behaviour and employee’s organizational commitment. Some of these studies revealed that high levels of perceived ethical leadership behaviour are related to higher levels of employee’s organizational commitment )Pomnu & Tennakoon, Upadhyay & Singh, in Bellow, 2012). It therefore goes to show that principals’ ethical leadership behaviour may likely influence teachers level of commitment in their job performance. However, Kannair, )2007), believes that gender may be a factor that can influence teachers’ perception of the principals’ ethical leadership behaviour on their level of commitment. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM It may not be an over statement to say that the world over including Nigeria in this 21st century is highly characterized with various forms of unethical behaviours and practices. Some principals see themselves as `sacred cows’ as they are found to arrogate powers to themselves. They in some cases fail to carry the teachers along by their failure to appreciate the personal worth of the teachers. Cases of indiscipline are not always handled with fairness and justice. Probably, this may be the reason why some teaches appear to be less satisfied and committed in the school as could be observed in their poor attitude to work, absenteeism, lack of dedication to teaching and carrying out assignments. This situation may negatively impact on the policy stipulations mandating both principals and teachers to remain authentic and devoted to their professional mission of offering a sound character education to the students. It is therefore important to determine the influence Principals’ ethical leadership behaviour on the level of teachers’ commitment in the secondary schools in Anambra State. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The following research questions guided the study. 1) What are the principals’ ethical leadership behaviours in secondary schools in Anambra State? 2) What are the teachers’ perception of the influence of principals’ ethical leadership behaviours on their level of commitment? HYPOTHESES The following two null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. 1. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of male and female teachers on the principals’ ethical leadership behaviours in secondary schools in Anambra State. 2. The mean ratings of male and female teachers do not differ, significantly on their perception of the influence of principals’ ethical leadership behaviours on their level of commitment in secondary schools. METHOD The study adopted a descriptive survey design. Nworgu )2015) sees descriptive survey design as that study which aims at collecting data on, and describing in a systematic manner the characteristics, features or facts about a given population. This design was deemed appropriate for this study which collected data from teachers based on the topic of the study. The instrument developed by the researcher for data collection was a questionnaire, titled; `Influence of principals’ ethical leadership behaviours on teachers’ commitment )IPEδBTC)’. The questionnaire was divided into two sections; section A contains the demographic data of the respondents. Section ‘B’ is made up of two sections. Each section has 18 items. The respondents were required to rate their responses in a 4-point scale of strongly agree )SA) 4-points, Agree )A), 3points, Disagree )DA), 2 points and Strongly Disagree 1 point. The population of the study consisted of all the 6,203 teachers )993 males and 5210 females) from the 256 secondary schools in Anambra State )Source; Department of Planning and Statistics, Post Primary School Services Commission, Awka, εarch, 2016). Through simple random sampling, three zones out of the six education zones in the state were sampled for the study. The six zones are Aguata, Awka, Nnewi, Ogidi, Onitsha and Otuocha. The sampled zones are Awka, Nnewi and Onitsha and have a total number of 143 schools. The researcher adopted 30% of the schools, constituting 43 schools. In each of the schools, 15 male and 15 female teachers were sampled making a total of 1, 290 teachers )645 males, 645 females) sampled for the study. The instrument for data collection was a 36-item questionnaire developed by the researcher.)A copy of the instrument containing item by item responses is attached as appendix). The instrument was validated by two experts in educational management and policy, and an expert in measurement and evaluation. They were all from the faculty of education, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. The experts’ corrections and inputs were reflected before producing the final copy of the instrument. For reliability of the instrument, test-retest method was adopted in determining the internal consistency of the instrument. The test was conducted using 32 teachers )16 male and 16 female) from the secondary schools in Imo State of Nigeria. The test was conducted two times, separated by a time interval of two weeks. To determine the reliability co-efficient of the two sets of responses, Pearson’s product moment 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 correlation was used. A reliability co-efficient of 0.92 was obtained and was considered satisfactory for the study. The researchers with the help of three research assistants administered the 1290 copies of the questionnaire to the respondents directly in their different schools. Only 633 and 630 copies of the questionnaire were retrieved from the male and female teachers respectively, making a total of 1263 )representing 98?) copies duly filled and returned. εean and standard deviation were used in answering the research questions. The decision rule for interpreting the mean scores of the data was 2.50. Therefore, any item that scored 2.50 and above was considered agreed, same with the grand mean, while any item that scored below 2.50 was considered as disagreed, and same with the grand mean. The Z-test was adopted for testing the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. RESULT AND FINDINGS Table1: εean and standard deviation of male and female teachers on the administrators’ ethical leadership behaviours in secondary schools in Anambra State. Sub-δevel of Ethical Number εale Teachers δeadership scale Items X SD Decision Communication Ethics 06 2.87 0.86 Agree Female Teachers X SD Decision 2.93 0.88 Agree Climatic Ethics 04 3.50 0.94 Agree 3.31 0.91 Agree Ethics in Decision making. 04 2.90 0.93 Agree 2.97 0.90 Agree Behavioural Ethics Total 04 2.88 18 3.04 0.95 Agree 0.92 Agree 2.89 0.94 Agree 3.03 0.91 Agree In table 1, all the sub-levels of the principals’ ethical leadership behaviours have the mean ratings that exceeded the cut-off point of 2.50 in both the column for male and female teachers. The total grand mean of 3.04 for male teachers and 3.03 for female teachers indicates that both male and female teachers agreed that the four sub-levels are the principals’ ethical leadership behaviours in the secondary schools in Anambra State. The total standard deviation of 0.92 for male teachers and 0.91 for female teachers’ shows that their responses were homogenous, since the ratings for each sub-level was slim. Table 2: εean and standard deviation of male and female teachers’ perception of the administrators’ ethical leadership behaviours on their level of commitment. Sub-δevel of Ethical Number εale Teachers Female Teachers δeadership scale Items X SD Decision X SD Decision Communication Ethics 06 3.12 0.95 Agree 3.16 0.93 Agree Climatic Ethics 04 3.15 0.95 Agree 3.13 0.87 Agree Ethics in Decision making. 04 3.16 3.17 0.88 Agree 0.88 Agree 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Behavioural Ethics Total 04 3.18 18 3.15 0.88 Agree 0.92 Agree 3.16 0.92 Agree 3.12 0.90 Agree Table 2 shows that all the four sub-levels of the administrators’ ethical leadership behaviours have their respective mean well above the cut-off point of 2.50 running through the column for male and female teachers. The overall mean of 3.15 for male teachers and 3.12 for female teachers indicates that both sexes agreed that the four sublevels are the administrators’ ethical behaviours in the secondary schools that greatly influence their commitment to a high level. The overall standard deviation of 0.92 and 0.90 for the responses of male and female teachers respectively, shows that their rating for each item was slim, indicating that their responses were homogenous. Table 3: z-test of male and female teachers’ mean ratings on principals’ ethical leadership behaviours. Variation Number X SD DF Z-cal Z-crit Decision εale teachers 645 3.04 0.92 Female teachers 645 3.03 0.91 1288 0.19 1.96 not significant The z-test analysis in table 3 shows that the z-calculated of 0.19 was less than the critical 2-value of 1.96 at alpha level of 0.05 and degree of freedom )df) 1288. This is an indication that the difference in the mean responses of male and female teachers regarding the administrators’ ethical leadership behaviours in secondary schools in Anambra State was not significant. Table 4: 2-test of male and female teachers’ mean influence of administrators’ ethical leadership commitment. Variation Number X SD εale teachers 645 3.15 0.92 Female teachers 645 3.12 0.90 ratings on their perception of the behaviours on their level of DF Z-cal Z-crit Decision 1288 0.56 1.96 not significant Table 4 shows that the 2-cal value of 0.56 was less than the critical 2-value of 1.96 at alpha level 0.05 and degree of freedom )df) 1288. This is an indication that the difference in the mean responses between male and female teachers on the influence of school administrators’ ethical leadership behaviours on teachers’ level of commitment was not significant. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The findings of this study revealed that both male and female teachers agreed that all the four levels of ethical leadership scale; communicative ethics, climatic ethics, ethics in decision making and behavioural ethics are ethical leadership behaviours exhibited by the principals in Anambra State. This finding is in line with Bellow )2012) and Yukl )2013) who believe that principals are seen to be fair, sincere, trust worthy, open, moral decision makers and care for their staff as well as their students. The test of null hypotheses was not significant, suggesting that there were no variations in the views of male and female teachers on the administrators’ ethical leadership behaviours. The result also revealed that male and female teachers perceived the four sub-scales 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 of principals’ ethical leadership behaviours as influencing their commitment to a greater height. The finding is in agreement with the views of εihelic )2010), δawrence and Deepa )n.d.) who postulated that through principals’ ethical leadership, teachers’ are inspired to realize their responsibilities, develop self-esteem, make teaching meaningful, develop cultural sensitivity, determine core values and provide meaningful challenges in the school system. This indicates that the principals very well perform their ethical responsibilities like treating the staff justly and encouraging them, being fair, understanding, patient and humble; traits which all exist in the communicative ethics, climatic ethics, ethics in decision making and behavioural ethics levels at the secondary schools)Yilmaz in Karakose, 2007). Teachers believe that the administrators’ acceptance of faults, exhibition of selflessness, love, humility, justice, open decision making and they like, inspires them to be more responsible in the performance of duties as well as invoking their consciousness of investing more time with students and doing the right thing at the right time. The test of null hypotheses was not significant. Perhaps this may be attributed to the fact that both male and female teachers are in the same working environment and may likely be experiencing principals’ demonstration of love, fairness, kindness, reward, honesty, justice among others in the same degree. Since the principals apply social justice, by treating everybody irrespective of gender, class, faith or ethnicity with fairness, it may not be doubtful why male and female teachers were in agreement and thus recorded no significant difference in their mean responses. It is therefore imperative based on the findings of this study to adduce that if all principals must imbibe the tenets of ethical principles in their leadership behaviours on a regular bases, teachers’ sense of commitment as well as character education in the educational institutions would be optimally achieved. CONCLUSION: One of the core duties of principal in secondary schools is to inculcate values and raise morally upright individuals capable of independent thinking. Achieving this requires teachers’ high level of commitment which is dependent on the principals’ demonstration of ethical leadership behaviour in the school. The findings of this study clearly show that principals adopt the four sub-scales of ethical leadership which the teachers agreed that have influenced their sense of commitment to a high level. RECOMMENDATIONS In view of the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made; 1) The government through its relevant agencies should consistently encourage the school administrators to always live within the confines of ethical behaviours in order to promote ethical culture and values in the school system. 2) Teacher commitment is a key factor influencing the teaching learning process. Principals should therefore not rest on their oars to promote this through consistent ethical leadership behaviours. Bellow, S.ε. )2012). REFERENCE Impact of ethical 11 leadership on employed job Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 performance. International journal of business and social science. 3)11); 228-236. p. Duffield, J.F. & εcCuen, R.H. )2000). Ethical maturity and successful leadership. Journal of professional issues in engineering education and practices; 126)2), p. 29-82. Federal Republic of Nigeria )FRN) )2009). National policy on education. δagos, NERDC press. Gentile, ε.C. )2010). Keeping your colleagues honest. Harvard business review 88)3); p. 114-117. Kannair, J. )2007). The ethical mind. Harvard business review 85 )3); p 51-56. Karakose, T. )2007). High school teachers’ perceptions regarding principals’ ethical leadership in Turkey. Asia Pacific education review 8 )3); p. 464-477. Khodarahmi, R. & Aghahoseini, T. )2014). The relationship between ethical leadership and empowerment of employees in the tax affairs of Isfahan city. International journal of academic research in business and social sciences 4)6); p.279-293. http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS δawrence, A. S. & Deepa )n.d.). Teacher commitment in promoting education: The need of the hour. Retrieved, https://www.academia,edu/146. εihelic, K.K. )2010). Ethical leadership international journal of management and information systems 14 )5); p. 31-41. Nyukerong, R. )2014). Fostering ethical leadership in organisation. European journal of business and management 6)33);p.56-64. Htt://www.iiste.org. Trevino, L.K. & Brown, M.E. (2004). Managing to be ethical: Debunking five business ethics myths. Academy of management executive 18(2). p. 69-81. Yukl, G., Mathsud, R., Hassan, S. & Russian, G.E. (2013). An improved measure of ethical leadership. Journal of leadership and organizational studies 20 (1); p. 38-48. APPENDIX ETHICAL LEADERSHIP SCALE (ELS) QUESTIONAIRE PART 1 Gender: a) Male ( ) b) Female ( ) PART II A) Each of the following statements is followed by several columns on a 4111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 point scale as follows:Strongly Agree (SA) 4 points; Agree (A) 3 points; Disagree (D) 2 points; Strongly Disagree (SD) 1 point. Indicate your response to each question by ticking ( ) in the column that best applies to you. Section A: S/N The Principal of your school does the following SA A D COMMUNICATIVE ETHICS 1 Accepts his fault 2 Is selfless 3 Is humble 4 Is concerned for the greater good of the teachers 5 Is patient 6 Is trust worthy CLIMATIC ETHICS 7 Tries to impact ideas based on love 8 Accepts different ideas of his staff 9 Encourages his staff 10 Rewards the achievement of his staff justly ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING 11 Creates free environment for discussion 12 Is systematic in finding solutions 13 Applies common decisions efficiently 14 Does not take advantage of political issues BEHAVIOURAL ETHICS 15 Behaves honestly 16 Behaves courageously 17 Protects individual rights 18 Always tells the truth in all conditions SECTION B TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF THE INFLUENCE OF ADMINISTRATOR’S ETHICAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR ON THEIR LEVEL OF COMMITMENT Indicate your Level of Agreement on the following: COMMUNICATIVE ETHICS 19 Administrator’s acceptance of faults makes teachers’ loyal 20 When the Administrator is selfless teachers feel more dedicated 21 Administrator’s humility creates a healthy working environment for staff. 22 His concern for the greater good of the teachers makes teachers have a feeling of belongingness 23 Administrator’s patience makes teachers to remain calm when dealing with school problems. 24 Being trust worthy lends to teachers’ show of transparency CLIMATIC ETHICS 25 Administrator’s show of love increases teachers sense of 111 SD Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 responsibility As the administrator accepts different ideas, teachers are encouraged to be more innovative Encouraging teachers at work serves as a motivator Rewarding the achievement of teachers by the administrator inspires them to hard work. ETHICS IN DECISION MAKING As administrator creates free environment for discussion teachers are encouraged to air their views. Administrator’s systematic nature in handling solutions increases teachers’ confidence. As the administrator applies common decision efficiently, teachers are made to believe in him greatly. As the administrator controls playing politics with issues, teachers work at peace. BEHAVIOURAL ETHICS Administrator’s honest behaviour encourages teachers to live in truth. Administrator’s courageous behaviour encourages teachers to withstand fear and difficulty. Administrator’s truthfulness lures teachers into sincerity As administrator respects individual rights, teachers have greater sense of belonging. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Interpretive Aspects of Human Figure Drawings of Abused Children Peejay D. Bengwasan Saint Louis University, Philippines ABSTRACT Art is an expression of innermost states. Children learn to project their unconscious in human figure drawings. Analyzing interpretive aspects of human figure drawings in the Draw A Person Test, the possibility that child abuse could be assessed was ascertained. Through documentary analysis of psychological reports, 10 interpretive aspects were consolidated under two broad themes: Helplessness, encompassing nine )Self and Bodily Uncertainty, Cognitive δimitation, Social Inhibition, Sexual Preoccupation, Anxiety, Aggression, Restriction, Guilt, and Suspicion) and Resilience, suggesting manners of coping and emergent needs. Bodily uncertainty, lack of aggression and grandiosity were more evident in females, whereas, low self-concept, hostility and emotional suppression were seen more in males. Some aspects are unique to specific types of abuse such as sexual preoccupation in sexual abuse, aggression in physical abuse, and euphoric and grandiose tendencies in neglect and abandonment. Keywords: human figure drawings, projective tests, child abuse, helplessness, resilience INTRODUCTION Drawings can be a means of establishing a rapid, easy, pleasant rapport with the child )Di δeo 1983). Children who are shy, quiet, impulsive, have speech and language difficulties or speak a different language respond well to drawing activities )Klepsch & δogie, 1982). When working with children from other cultures, drawings allow children to communicate with others and helps establish understanding between themselves and adults )Cochran, 1996; Gil & Drewes, 2005). Because of countless factors involved in drawings, such simple representations could be a potential source of children’s psyche. Children’s drawings provide a valuable assessment tool because they help with inner expression. εost children love to draw and, given the opportunity, they will do so )Van Hutton, 1994, Allen, 2012). It would be beneficial to draw out covert feelings in counseling and therapy. Drawings can also be used in school with students struggling with normal developmental issues. These are potential indicators of emotions, self-esteem, social competence and aspects of personality )Di δeo, 1973; εalchiodi, 1998). Drawings help children to call attention to topics that are personally important or emotionally significant )Thomas & Silk, 1990). Projective drawings are particularly useful for those who have been abused. Children who have been in these experiences may have a high level of inhibition and may be especially defensive, oppositional or resistant in response to direct lines of questioning. Hence, through the Draw A Person )DAP) test, professionals evaluate children in a less threatening manner and provide an enjoyable activity in which 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 children are able to express themselves )Van Hutton, 1994). In the unpublished work of Batongbacal )2000), projective drawings have proven to be a tool to diagnose and identify sexual abuse. Specific patterns and manners of drawing human figures on paper emerged from analyses around the globe, as well as in the Philippines )Carandang, 1996). Symbolisms in Children’s Drawings Projective drawings, like dreams, use symbolic language to express the innermost structure of the child. A symbol, in its broadest meaning, is a motivated signifier. There is a resemblance of some kind between the object and what is signified. The symbol will be used in affective language to express feelings and concrete experiences rather than in intellectual language to express impersonal thoughts )Piaget, 1951). As cited in the unpublished work of Costa )2002), Freud’s psychoanalytical point of view defines a symbol as a wish or desire, which includes the manifestation of the libido. A symbol always stands for something more than its immediate meaning. Even at a young age, children are able to have a complex use of symbols to express themselves. They utilize symbolic drawings to catch up with the demands of their environment )Jung, 1972; Freud, as cited in Costa, 2002). Costa )2002) concluded that when a child is engaged in the task of drawing, there is a compelling movement from a deep psychic life to surface outer reality. The child projects desires, preoccupations, fears and perceptions on the paper. Drawings give the child an opportunity to bring to surface things which were not perceived before. They help confront and play with most enjoyable wishes as well as with the most horrendous fears. Children’s Drawings as Projective Tests Early researches focused on projective drawings as a manner of examining children. Children are given a blank sheet of paper and a pencil with the instructions to “draw a person”. The drawing is then scored for mental age based on the details found. εost practitioners consider it as a test of intellectual development only and not a measure of underlying emotional conflicts or personality characteristics )Goodenough, 1926). However, strong emotions emerge in images instead of words )Kramer, 1979; Naumburg, 1973). Drawing allows children to experience feelings and may be more effective in helping accomplish goals )Withrow, 2004). These provide a way to portray their inner world without having to rely on words )Gil, 2006). Drawings can also help increase understanding of clients in therapy, are frequently used as informal assessments for understanding struggles and the internal world and can help comprehend inner wounds and overcome painful experiences )Van Hutton, 1994; Kaplan, 2003; Gil, 2006; Carandang, 1996; Carmichael, 2006). When children transfer the pictures in their mind onto paper, the drawing becomes an external object that they can use to gain control and mastery )Webb, 2004). Processing the meaning of the drawing reinforces self-exploration and motivation to change )Riley, 1994). Effective interpretation helps the child to accept painful thoughts and feelings and resolve internal conflicts )Whitmont, 1969). This allows generation of hypotheses and facilitates exploration and understanding )Furth, 2002; Crenshaw, 2006). Drawings may facilitate the discussion of thoughts and feelings, particularly for children who have moderate learning difficulties )δewis, 1995). This can be 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 especially useful where the child provides information about a traumatic event experienced. The extensive use of drawings to assess maltreatment and neglect of children helps to recall important events as well as a tool for assessing and accessing traumatic memories )Veltman & Browne, 2002; Burgess & Hartman, 1993). Drawings have been found to cue more accurate recall of events compared with a standard interview )Butler, Gross, & Hayne, 1995). Qualitative interpretations have proven to be optimal sources that provide insight into a child’s inner state. Based on psychoanalytic theories, hypotheses were made regarding signs in human figure drawings )εachover, 1949, 1953, 1960). Through an analysis of the drawing of a person, clinicians obtain information concerning a child’s sensitivity, maturity, flexibility and degree of personality integration )Buck, 1948). Interpreting Children’s Human Figure Drawings In general, children typically over- or under-emphasize a body part that concerns them. A body part has significance for the child if it is overemphasized through enlargement, more detail, or the use of heavy lines, or if it is underemphasized by a reduction in size, little detail, or the use of faint lines )εachover, 1949). A series of studies were conducted showing that these emotional indicators differentiated between normal children )Koppitz, 1966). Emotional indicators are specific details omitted, exaggerated, or included in a human figure drawing that vary from those of normal individuals )Koppitz, 1968). However, a single emotional indicator should not be construed as clinically significant. Three or more in a drawing, such as big hands, gross asymmetry of limbs, the absence of a neck, are suggestive of emotional difficulties. Individuals who include different emotional indicators in their drawings can have the same attitude. Anxiety may be represented by shading of the body, as well as by omitting the nose. Similarly, a single emotional indicator has different meanings in different situations or for different individuals )Koppitz, 1984). Gender Differences A greater interest in physical activity may be the reason for boys to exaggerate the size of feet and length or arms and legs. Appropriate proportions of the feet and welldefined heels as cited in the unpublished work of Batongbacal )2000) may suggest a security in one’s footing, a sense of balance, growth, accomplishment and overall good level of adjustment )εachover, 1960). Boys were also found to show a better sense of proportion )Goodenough 1926; εortensen, 1991; Harris, 1963). Boys surpassed girls in depiction of proportion, perspective, and sense of form; and showed more imagination, humor, and originality )εortensen, 1991). Participation in physical activities draw attention to body movements, limbs and knees )Koppitz, 1968; Goodenough 1926; εortensen, 1991). εovements and action in may connote a willingness to work through problems )Urban, 1967). This leads to change from fullface drawings to profile drawings )Goodenough 1926; εortensen, 1991). This suggests a degree of evasiveness, turning away from others, defensiveness, and striving toward independence )Batongbacal, 2000; Koppitz, 1968; εachover 1960). Ears are likewise conspicuous and appear more in boys’ drawings )Koppitz, 1968). Boys also depict the nose in two dimensions, depicting the nose bridge and nostrils. Batongbacal )2000) contended that the nose is considerably a sexual symbol )Harris, 1963). Boys tended to direct attention away from the human figure itself and toward objects or persons in the environment. 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 On the other hand, girls were found to often exaggerate the size of the head and trunk and particularly the eyes. Girls excelled in a number of details in their drawings )Goodenough 1926; εortensen, 1991). An emphasized head is indicative of strong intellectual strivings. Sometimes, it signals aggressive and expansive tendencies, dependency, display and social communication. This indicates anxiety, repressions and inhibitions. Emphasized eyes signify hostility, aggression, and exhibitionistic trends. As Batongbacal )2000) reiterates, suspiciousness, ideas of reference or other paranoid characteristics are embedded in emphasized eyes. Girls often drew in detail most facial features, hair and hair styling )Harris, 1963). This indicates excessive sexuality and possibility of moving into delinquent sexuality )Urban, 1967; εachover 1951). Often depicted are jewelry, neckline and flared skirts )Harris, 1963). Other feminine traits include hair, pupils, eyebrows, both lips, and clothing, reflecting attitudes learned unconsciously from social and cultural environments )Koppitz, 1968). They generally suggest concern of social acceptance and imitation of mother figures interested in clothes and makeup )Koppitz, 1966). Elaborate clothing and accessories show relative weakness through cosmetization and display. Flowers and designs also represent sexual preoccupation )εachover, 1960). Bodily contours are also ascribed to girls, with secondary sex characteristics )Harris, 1963). These indicate strong identification with a dominant mother figure. Dependency and sexuality also be relate, such that belts represent the navel )εachover, 1951; Urban, 1967). Girls are seen as subtle regarding aggression; thus, drawings have mittened finger arrangements or left fingers missing altogether )εachover, 1951). Boys’ drawings indicated the lack of contact with feelings, abstraction and interest in other human beings. This tendency in females would suggest narcissism and over concern with the body or in hysterical symptoms. An elaborate explanation of patterns found in children’s drawings is dependent on the differences in models for boys and girls. Boys have soldiers, cowboys, spacemen and gangsters as male figures to look up to )εachover, 1951; εortensen, 1991). These differences cited are attributed to a cultural factor embedded in gender. Girls show more perseverance, and are more careful about details )Goodenough 1926; εortensen 1991). This makes girls have greater practice for drawing, creating greater interest and attention to people in clothing. Girls exceed boys in social interests, skills and possibly in intellectual abilities )Harris, 1963). On the contrary, girls lack the ability to organize details into wholes. This ability to incorporate spatial relationships in drawings allowed boys to surpass girls in nearly all aspects of drawings. Only in decorations that girls surpassed boys, giving off a sense of rhythm )εortensen, 1991). Child Abuse As noted in the unpublished work of Garcia )2009), physically abused are particularly avoidant )Crittenden & Ainsworth, 1989). εost neglected children are likewise classified as anxious and ambivalent )Youngblade & Belsky, 1990). Physically abused children are described as aggressive. Their interaction with peers is characterized by verbal and physical aggression. They are less compliant and more impulsive than neglected children, with acting-out behaviors and lack of empathy )Wodarski et al., 1990). Abused and maltreated children tend to develop brains that are attuned to dangers. At the slightest threat, they look for signals that indicate further abusive attacks. The brain becomes organized for the purpose of survival. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Child victims are constantly in states of high alert that avoid further maltreatment but hinder optimal development. These children are at risk for learning, emotional, behavioral, and physical difficulties )Herman, 1992; Terr, 1990). εany children who suffered sexual abuse have experiences of pain, shame, fear, and confusion. Sexual abuse impairs the ability to understand and regulate emotions. They may manifest post-traumatic symptoms like hypervigilance, intrusive thoughts, feelings of helplessness, and flashbacks of traumatic experiences )Kendall-Tacket, 2002). They manifest emotional outbursts, low levels of emotional awareness, and an emotionally disengaged stature. Dissociation occurs as a defense mechanism as feeling disconnected from bodies to avoid being overwhelmed by traumatic experiences )Wickham & West, 2002). Social interaction and dealings that require intimate relationships are very difficult for sexually abused children )Howe, 2005). Abused or neglected children suffer from neuroses or attempts to make life bearable, as a way of interpersonal control and coping. Ten neurotic needs were summarized in three broad coping strategies. The first is Compliance )εoving-Toward Strategy or Self-effacing Solution), encompassing the need for affection and approval, the need to please and be liked by others; the need for a partner; and the need to restrict life to narrow borders. Second is Aggression )εoving-Against Strategy or the Expansive Solution), including the need for power or control; the need to exploit others; the need for social recognition or prestige; the need for personal admiration; and the need for personal achievement. The third category is Withdrawal )εoving-Away-From or the Resigning Solution), which involves the need for self-sufficiency and independence; and the need for perfection and unassailability )Horney, as cited in Boeree, 1997). Differences between the artwork of abused and nonabused children were found )Hjorth & Harway, 1981). Human figure drawings have the potential to assess the functioning of a child )Goodenough, 1926). Abused children depicted the size of legs and/or arms as disproportional. They tended to omit feet from and to depict the size of a figure’s head disproportionately. Additionally, abused children composed the human body of a series of geometric figures, suggesting cognitive delays and limitations )Blain et. al., 1981). A study on body image of physically abused and normal adolescents showed that human figure drawings differed significantly in six of eight hypothesized aspects: erasure, clothing, detail, fingers, symmetry, and arm position. Drawings of physically abused adolescents had less erasure, absence of clothing, fingers and detail. They were less symmetrical and displayed rigid horizontal arm positions. Drawings of normal adolescents contained more erasure and presence of the items absent in those of physically abused adolescents. These support clinical descriptions of abused adolescents having poor interpersonal relationships, introversive tendencies, insecurity, anxiety, poor body image, adjustment and self-concept, and sex-role confusion )Hjorth & Harway, 1981). Abused children’s figures are less symmetrical than those of children who had not encountered abuse. Comparing drawings of sexually abused and non-abused children, it was found that sexually abused children were more likely to draw sexually explicit features. Anxiety was also evident in their drawings. There were also indicators of distress or uneasiness of mind regarding the body, actions or future events, being 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 troubled, unsettled, worried or having a prolonged state of apprehension )Hibbard et al., 1980). Sexual themes appear to inundate the artwork of sexually traumatized children )Hjorth & Harway, 1981). When drawings of sexually abused children were analyzed, emphasis on the pelvic region and portrayal of defined genitalia were seen )Kelley, 1984). Human figure drawings of 5-12 year old children who had not encountered sexual abuse included genitalia rarely )Koppitz, 1968). Abused children were more likely to draw the legs of a figure pressed together, indicating an attempt to control sexual desires or prohibit sexual attack )Koppitz, 1968). An awareness of anatomical concepts and figures beyond a child’s age-expected knowledge are evident through emphasized genital or breast areas, or depiction of sexual contact )εiller et al., 1987). Emotionally, drawings from children who were sexually abused depict significantly more anxiety than do drawings of non-abused children )Hibbard and Harman, 1990). Another study reported that when sexually abused children were evaluated, each child focused on genitalia in his or her drawings )Sturner & Rothbaum, 1980). Sexual anatomy in these drawings was often depicted in great detail )Thomas, 1980). Drawings done by children who were victims of incest tended to minimize or exaggerate features of a sexual nature )Yates, Beutler, & Crago, 1985). Sexually abused children have been found to draw perpetrators with obvious phallic symbols )Goodwin, 1982), while young children with experiences of sexual abuse often depicted anatomically correct male genitalia )Hagood, 1992). In a comparative study, sexually abused children were significantly more likely to draw explicit sexual features )Hibbard, Roghman & Hoekelman, 1980). These results suggested that the drawings of genitalia by children should alert clinicians to explore the possibility of sexual abuse because drawing explicit sexual features may reflect not only sexual knowledge beyond expected age-appropriate levels, but also preoccupation )Van Hutton, 1994). In a study on child victims of incest, there is a tendency to either exaggerate or minimize sexual features. Conclusions point to poor impulse control and greater defensive structure emphasizing regression )Yates, Beutler & Crago, 1985). There are suggested specific indicators in drawings of abused children. These indicators include signs of tension, hostility, aggression and signs of withdrawal )Schornstein & Derr, 1978). Emotional signs of distress were also found in Human Figure Drawings gathered from street children in a study done in Columbia. They were subjected to live on the streets, exposed to violence due to neglect by their biological parents. Anxiety was likely found in most drawings. There were mostly pictures of masculine, aggressive males as the result of their self-perceived relationships to guerillas. The street children’s drawings have two to three emotional indicators, which are indicative of emotional problems and unsatisfactory interpersonal relationships )Aptekar, 1989). In the Philippines, data reflect value regarding human figure drawings as an assessment tool. Just looking at the drawings of abused children, practitioners get a feel of the sexually abused victims’ sense of powerlessness and the feeling of being broken and damaged, coupled with helpless stances. Furthermore, poor quality of the drawings was observed, which could reflect their undeveloped mental abilities and constricting effect of the recent trauma they have experienced. Nevertheless, a glimpse of their resilience is seen )Carandang, 1996). 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 STATEεENT OF THE PROBδEε The study aims to identify common themes of interpretations based on gender and type of abuse. Specifically, the study seeks to identify: 1) common interpretive aspects of human figure drawings of children with experience of abuse, their differences according to gender, and 3) their differences according to the type of abuse experienced. εETHODS AND PROCEDURES The study is qualitative in nature, with the aim of discovering significant themes and aspects in the interpretations of children’s drawings. The focus is on confirming the possibility that the Draw A Person )DAP) test helps to assess child abuse. A total of 175 cases with the Draw A Person Test, were included in this study. These were cases from Saint δouis University-Sunflower Children’s Center )Child and Youth Wellness Center), a psychotherapeutic center for children. In the table below, the number of cases per type of abuse and gender. Gender Type of Abuse Neglect and Abandonment εale 17 32 33 Female 65 12 16 Total 82 44 49 Table 1. Distribution of cases per gender and type of abuse Sexual Abuse Physical Abuse Total 82 93 175 The participants of the study were given a sheet of paper and a pencil, with the instruction “Draw a Person”, as part of their assessment. The drawings were interpreted by the children’s respective psychotherapists using a list of possible interpretations as cited in Costa )2002) and in Batongbacal )2000). These were based on the works of several authors, clinicians and researchers who have attained considerable experience in administering and interpreting children’s drawings. Data for this study came from the individual psychological reports that contained the interpretations of the children’s human figure drawings. Documentary analysis via thematic approach was done on the individual psychological reports of the child abuse cases. Once the reports revealed significant interpretations from the child clients’ human figure drawings, these were sorted and grouped according to emergent themes and aspects, then analyzed with respect to gender and type of abuse. Based on the analyses, a simplified list of common aspects and possible interpretations pertinent to child abuse was made. RESUδTS AND DISCUSSIONS Common Interpretive Aspects Human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse depict several prominent aspects. These aspects are synthesized under two broad themes: Helplessness and Resilience. Aspects included under Helplessness represent limitations, delays, and poor skills in different life areas of children with experiences 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 of abuse represented as Self and Bodily Uncertainty, Cognitive δimitation, Social Inhibition, and Sexual Preoccupation. Consequences of abusive experiences related to emotions and feelings such as Anxiety, Aggression, Restriction, Guilt, and Suspicion were fused under Poor Affect Regulation. These represent the current states of children with experiences of abuse. εeanwhile, emergent needs were found to be aspects of Resilience. These represent strategies similar to those identified by Horney, namely: Compliance )moving-toward), Aggression )moving against) and Withdrawal )moving away from) strategies. Differences in Interpretive Aspects according to Gender Females were more likely to project bodily uncertainty and concern for outward appearance. They projected more limitations in cognitive ability, as manifested by disproportionate drawings and omissions of major body parts, giving an impression of distorted thinking. Controlling social interactions as indicated by stiffness in body posture were also features unique to only females, rooted in the element of shame. With regard to sexual aspects, female children with experiences of abuse more frequently featured problems in their human figures than males. Anxiety in their drawings was anchored on possible sexual attack, being subjected to novel situations they have no control over, and meeting new people. Females frequently projected euphoric and grandiose tendencies coupled with attempts to control unpleasant experiences by wanting to hide or wish to forget traumatic experiences. Findings on guilt revealed that feelings of self-blame were as well evident only in their drawings with the tendency to be wary and cautious. εale children with experience of abuse had indeed expressed more conflicts regarding the self, such as feelings of not being accepted, instability, insecurity, and self-confusions. Frequently, their human figure drawings were presented as small entities. Difficulties in the cognitive area reflected in the inability to express their perception of the environment through illustrative manner. Further, males were more likely to project concerns for outward social appearance with anxiety and fear. Emphasis on the waistline and male genitalia were more evident in their drawings as expressions of sexual preoccupation. Anxiety related to cognitive ability and interacting with the opposite gender was found only in their drawings alongside explicit aggressive features. εales were the only ones to project rigidity and control portrayed by the excessive need to suppress emotions. Feelings of guilt in relation to stealing behaviors were found only in their drawings. With regard to resilience, females have projected signs of adequate sexual development and representation of the environment, social openness, and strivings for social assertion and dominance in their human figure drawings. εeanwhile, compensatory needs in response to deprivation of love, care, and nourishment were found more frequently in males with strivings for strength, power, independence, and control. As a sign of resilience, males had a more pronounced ease in expressing experiences through illustrations, as shown by a good sense of proportion. Differences in Interpretive Aspects according to Type of Abuse Sexually abused children were more likely to project bodily uncertainty and tendency to be wary. It was in their drawings that concern for outward appearance, evasion and 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 withdrawal were rooted in the element of shame. They more frequently drew unique figures representing being dirtied by previous abusive attacks and figures signifying anger projected toward perpetrators. The lack of aggression was also coupled with difficulties in coping with threatening circumstances. Aspects of control were more evident, featuring rigidity with regard to possible sexual attack, stubborn attitude, and refusal to listen to criticism alongside a prolonged state of apprehension. Small entities alongside confusions related to the self were seen more in the drawings of physically abused children. The inability to cope with a hostile environment and presence of aggressive models at home, accompanied by the tendency to be competitive as suggested by explicit aggressive features were more evident in their drawings. Guilt, rigidity and control, and attempts to control unpleasant experiences by wanting to hide or wish to forget traumatic experiences were likewise evident in only physically abused children. Neglected or abandoned children were more likely to project concerns for outward social appearance, defensiveness, and detachment in their drawings. Deficits in selfmonitoring skills and self-awareness and rationalizations about subsequent anger were likewise more ascribed to them. They frequently projected euphoric and grandiose tendencies as signs coupled with feelings of guilt over failure to act correctly to great frustration by a restricting environment. Present only in sexually and physically abused children were figures floating on undulating or rippling water, indicating uncertainty about the self. They expressed difficulties in expressing their perceptions in the environment through illustrative methods and more frequently emphasized the waistline and male genitalia. Signs of great desires to avoid aggression were more evident in their drawings, alongside feelings of self-blame. In physically abused and neglected or abandoned children, anxiety related to cognitive ability and feelings of not being accepted were unique features. Fear of interacting with the opposite sex was more evident with feelings of guilt in relation to stealing behaviors. The lack of achievement, inadequacies, tendency to inhibit and suppress emotions, feelings of fear attributed to abandonment, and apprehensions in handling intellectual tasks were more prominent in sexually abused and abandoned or neglected children. Elaborate clothing, hair, and crotch area, which indicated excessive sexuality, were more present in their drawings. With regard to resilience, only sexually abused children had expressed adequate sexual development through a figure of a girl with a rounded middle, pertaining to positive identification with one’s mother. Needs for social assertion and dominance were seen frequently in their drawings. The need for controlling social interactions to maintain a sense of control unpleasant experiences by wanting to hide or forget traumatic experiences were features unique to only physically abused children. Compensatory needs in response to deprivation of love, care, and nourishment, feelings of instability, insecurity, and confusions about the self were found in the drawings of abandoned and neglected children. It was only in their drawings that strivings for masculinity, physical power and strength were valued and appreciated, as suggested by emphasized muscles. Strong identification to others and adequacy in expression in their drawings were identified in only those who were sexually abused and abandoned or neglected together with strivings for strength, power, and control. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 CONCδUSION Through simple human figure drawings, even children such as those who have encountered traumatic and abusive events in the past are able to put into paper the facets of their lives that have been overshadowed by post-traumatic symptoms of child abuse. As a projective test, drawings of human figures are relatively less invasive methods of uncovering the psychological makeup of children with experience of abuse. Human figure drawings of children with experiences of abuse depict ten prominent aspects, synthesized under two broad themes: Helplessness and Resilience. Aspects included under Helplessness represent limitations, delays, and poor skills in different life areas of children with experiences of abuse represented as Self and Bodily Uncertainty, Cognitive δimitation, Social Inhibition, and Sexual Preoccupation. Consequences of abusive experiences related to emotions and feelings such as Anxiety, Aggression, Restriction, Guilt, and Suspicion were fused under Poor Affect Regulation. These represent the current states of children with experiences of abuse via their human figure drawings. εeanwhile, emergent needs were found to be aspects of Resilience, strategies similar to those identified by Horney, namely: Compliance )εoving-Toward), Aggression )εoving-Against) and Withdrawal )εoving- Away-From) strategies. Both similarities and differences are present in the manner by which males and females project interpretive aspects in their drawings. Aspects were more likely to be inferred from human figure drawings of both male and female children with experiences of abuse. Similarities like these represent typical aspects that are relatively less gender-related. Bodily uncertainty was more evident in females; whereas self-concept was seen more in males. A lack of aggression in females opposite numerous overt signs of hostility in males were observed. Grandiose and euphoric tendencies were found more in females, while emotional suppression was ascribed to males. Sexual development and social openness were found adequate in females, while adequacy in expression through illustrations was seen in males together with strivings for strength and love. Such are examples of aspects that are very much dependent on gender. δikewise, similarities and differences were evident in the human figure drawings of all types of abuse. Again, most aspects were identified in all types of abuse. This implies that for sexually abused, physically abused, and abandoned or neglected children, comparable concerns are projected in their human figure drawings. Similarities identified in the interpretive aspects of human figure drawings found in two types of abuse such as difficulties in cognitive expression in physically and sexually abused children represent overlapping aspects due to concurrence. Hence, we could say that similar degrees of cognitive limitation may be found in the drawings of children that have experienced both sexual and physical abuse. The same may be true for other combinations of concurrent types. Some aspects are unique to a specific type of abuse such as sexual preoccupation projected in the human figure drawings of sexually abused children, numerous signs of overt aggression in physically abused children, and euphoric and grandiose tendencies in neglected and abandoned children. Aspects such as these imply that 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 some interpretations may exist only in the drawings of either one of the three types. A limitation encountered in this study was the lack of other supportive cases relevant to child abuse, as attributed to the occurrence of each type with respect to gender. For example, sexual abuse in males was significantly less prevalent as compared to females. εoreover, concurrent cases )sexual and physical abuse; sexual abuse and abandonment or neglect; physical abuse and abandonment or neglect; and all types of abuse occurring simultaneously) existed. As such, isolating the interpretations indicative of only one type of abuse was difficult. A Guide to Assessing Abuse in Children’s Drawings: Drawing Features with Possible Significant Interpretations Drawing Features Possible Interpretations Helplessness The drawing features below may indicate problems and difficulties in the child’s current state A. Self and Bodily Uncertainty 1. Stick figure/s Insecurity; self-doubt )Urban, 1967; δevy, as cited in Costa, 2002). 2. Shadings on the Body anxiety; psychosomatic problems )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). trunk Acute anxiety, conflict, or fear, usually in the areas of sex, 3. Transparencies childbirth or bodily mutilation )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). Expansiveness of self-esteem, immaturity, poor inner control 4. Big Figure )Koppitz, 1966, 1968); Euphoric or grandiose tendencies )Ogdon et al, 1967). 5. Absence of the neck Immaturity, impulsivity; poor inner control )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). Insecurity; related to feeling of inadequacy, a shrunken ego, concern over dealing with the environment )Koppitz, 1966, 1968; 6. Tiny Figure Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002; εachover, 1951); Generalized discontentment with feelings of inferiority, ineffectiveness, inadequacy, and insecurity )Ogdon et al, 1967). 7. Shading Extreme shading indicates self-doubt, self-criticism )Urban, 1967). Sign of self-assurance )Urban, 1967); Unimproved pathology-low 8. Reinforced δines self-esteem, feelings of inferiority )Batongbacal, 2000) Physical inadequacy and unbalanced appearance of self-concept, 9. Asymmetry of limbs possibly with sex role confusion )Ogdon et al, 1967). B. Cognitive δimitations Common in children under age 6 and 7; frequent in aggressive 1. Poor Integration of children, those with poor school performance )Koppitz, 1966, parts 1968). Intense feelings of intellectual inadequacy )Koppitz, 1966, 1968; 2. Tiny head Urban, 1967 and εachover, 1951). 3. Transparencies Normal for small children )εachover, 1951 and Urban, 1967). 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 4. Omitted nose, eyes, Similar to what is expected of younger children )Koppitz, 1966, mouth, ears, neck, and 1968). other body parts. Normal in young children )Koppitz, 1966, 1968); Poor adjustment 5. No body and school achievement )Koppitz, 1966, 1968; Ogdon et al, 1967). δack of ambition )εachover, 1951; Urban, 1967; Buck, 1948; 6. Short arms Ogdon et al, 1967) 7. Asymmetry of limbs Poor coordination; special cognitive needs )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). 8. Stick figure/s Intellectual guarding )Urban, 1967; δevy, as cited in Costa, 2002). 9.Collars, tie, Concern for intellectual mastery )Urban, 1967 and εachover, necklaces 1951). C. Social Inhibition Withdrawal related to dealing with the environment )Koppitz, 1966, 1968; Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002 and εachover, 1951); 1. Tiny Figure Excessive defensiveness with low self-esteem )Ogdon et al, 1967). 2. Stiffness/Rigidity in Reluctance to reach out to others with feelings of social inadequacy posture )Koppitz, 1966, 1968, Batongbacal, 2000) 3. Broken lines or δack of assertiveness )εachover, 1951); anxiety, timidity, Sketch lines withdrawal as primary defense )Urban, 1967). Introversive self-absorbed tendency; low interest in perceiving 4. Vacant eyes environment; low perception of self; communication difficulty )Hammer, 1958; εachover, 1951; Urban, 1967; Ogdon et al, 1967). Difficulty in reaching out towards others; poor interpersonal 5. Arms clinging relationship )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). Excessive security need )Urban, 1967; εachover, 1951; Ogdon et 6. Feet-too big al, 1967). Aggressive reaching out )Koppitz, 1966, 1968); Related to love and 7. δong arms affection )εachover, 1951; Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002). 8. Stick figure Evasion )Urban, 1967 and δevy, as cited in Costa, 2002). 9. Glanced eyes Social difficulties )Costa, 2002). D. Sexual Preoccupation 1. Big Hands Acting-out behavior involving the hands )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). 2.Collars, tie, Concern over intellectual mastery over physiological needs and necklaces, etc. sexual impulses )Urban, 1967 and εachover, 1951). Emphasis on sexual control )Urban, 1967); Extreme control of 3. Special attention to sexuality because of guilt feelings or loss of sexual control )Ogdon the midbody area et al, 1967). 4. Detailed crotch Sexual interest )Batongbacal, 2000) 5. Hands near crotch Sexual interest )Batongbacal, 2000). Preoccupation with sex )Urban, 1967); Preoccupation with body 6. Nudity processes and development )εachover, 1951 and Urban, 1967). 7. Phallic symbol Sexual preoccupation; fear of impotence )Costa, 2002). 8. Flower or circled Overt sexual interest; in females, substitution of the genitals )Costa, object in the body 2002). Excessive sexuality )Urban, 1967); Severe anxiety about sexuality 9. Hair emphasized )Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002); Virility conflict with imminent possibility of moving into delinquent sexuality )εachover, 1951); 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Sexual preoccupation )Buck, 1948; Di δeo, 1983; Hammer, 1958 and Ogdon et al, 1967). 10. δegs pressed Rigid attempt to control sexual impulses or possible sexual attack together )Koppitz, 1966, 1968; εachover, 1951; Urban, 1967). 11. δower half of the Sexual disturbance and “blocked sexuality” )εachover, 1951). body omitted E. Poor Emotional Regulation )Anxiety, Aggression, Restriction, Guilt, Suspicion) 1. Broken lines or Anxiety and rigid control of impulses )Urban, 1967). Sketch lines Overtly hostile impulses )Urban, 1967); Sign of tension and 2. Reinforced lines hostility )Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002). εanifestation of anxiety; degree of shading is related to the 3. Shading intensity of the anxiety within the child )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). Anxieties in relation to safety and control; possible aggressive and 4. Shading feet assaultive tendencies )Hammer, 1958, εachover, 1951, Urban, 1967, Ogdon et al, 1967). 5. δegs cut off δack of autonomy )Buck, 1948 and Ogdon et al, 1967). Separation of intellectual ideas from emotions and feelings which 6. δong and thin neck contributes to the difficulty in controlling basic drives and impulses )Buck, 1948, Urban, 1967, Ogdon et al, 1967) Aggressive and acting-out tendencies, expansive, euphoric or grandiose tendencies )Ogdon et al, 1967); Poor inner control 8. Big figure )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). Hostile feelings )Costa, 2002); Overt aggression )εachover, 1951); 9. Talon like fingers Controlling anger )Buck, 1948; Ogdon et al, 1967). Hostility towards others; rebellion and anger )Koppitz, 1966, 10. Crossed eyes 1968). 11. Spiked hair, Negative feelings directed toward perpetrators; identification with helmets aggressive models at home )εachover, 1951, εortensen, 1991). Stubborn attitude and possible rigidity )Urban, 1967). Possible 12. Neckdifficulty in dealing with impulses )Gurvitz, as cited in Costa, overemphasized 2002). 13. No nose δack of overt aggressiveness )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). 14. Emphasized Primitive aggression and excessive control of anger )Urban, 1967). nostrils δack of aggressiveness and leadership; Impulse inhibition 15. Short arms )Koppitz, 1966, 1968); Feelings of weakness )Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002). Guilt over failure to act correctly or inability to act at all )Koppitz, 16. Hands cut off 1966, 1968). Conflicts and guilt feelings for manual activity )Di δeo, 1983; 17. Hidden Hands εachover, 1951 and Ogdon et al, 1967). 18. Hands not well Aggression and possibly furtive outbursts of aggression )Urban, defined 1967; εachover, 1951 and Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002). 19. Hands in the Unwillingness to deal with situation )εachover, 1951). pocket Anxieties related to some actual or imaginary activity involving the 20. Shading arms arms )Koppitz, 1966, 1968); Guilt feelings for aggressive impulses 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 23. Glanced eyes 24. Stick figure or masturbatory activity )εachover, 1951). Frequent in children who steal; actual or imaginary activity involving hands )Koppitz, 1966, 1968); Guilt over real or fantasized action: masturbation, assault or theft )Costa, 2002; Buck, 1948; Koppitz, 1966, 1968; εachover, 1951; Ogdon et al, 1967). Hostility, aggression; in girls, exhibitionistic trends )Urban, 1967); Suspiciousness, ideas of reference or paranoid characteristics; aggressive acting-out tendencies, especially if eyes are dark, menacing, or piercing )Hammer, 1958; εachover, 1951; Urban, 1967; Ogdon et al, 1967; Batongbacal, 2000). Suspiciousness; related with guilt feelings. Rigidity )Urban, 1967 and δevy, as cited in Costa, 2002). 25. Absence of neck Impulsivity and poor inner control )Koppitz, 1966, 1968). 21. Shading hands 22. Eyes emphasized 26. Special attention to Guilt feelings or sense of impending loss of sexual control )Ogdon the midbody area et al, 1967). Resilience The drawing features below represent the child’s strengths, coping and their emergent needs. A. εoving-Toward Strategy Ambition for achievement or for acquisition, including striving for 1. δong arms love and affection )εachover, 1951 and Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002). Tendency to compensate by trying to exude high self-esteem due to 2. Big figure the lack of positive self-concept, self-worth and security )Batongbacal, 2000) Positive identification with a mother figure; strong identification 3. A girl with a with a maternal figure )Harris, 1963, εachover, 1951, Urban, rounded middle 1967). Need for security and strong need for firm foundation of support 4. Feet too big )Urban, 1967, εachover, 1951, Ogdon et al, 1967). B. εoving-Against Strategy 1. Facial expressions, Positive sign of social openness, and empathy )Koppitz, 1966, emotions, moods 1968). Striving for power and control, sign of self-assurance )Urban, 2. Reinforced lines 1967). 3. Emphasized εasculine strivings; strivings for strength and dominance muscles )εachover, 1951, Buck, 1948, Di δeo, 1983, Ogdon et. al) 4. Big hands Striving for strength; compensating for weakness )εachover, 1951) Compensatory drive or reaction formation towards physical power 6. δong and thin neck or aggressive tendencies )εachover, 1951 and Urban, 1967). C. εoving-Away-From Strategy Strong need or striving for autonomy and aggression )Buck, 1948, 1. δegs too long Hammer, 1958, Jolles, as cited in Costa, 2002 and Urban, 1967). 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Western Psychological Services. 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Addressing academic writing needs of ESL (English as a Second Language) undergraduate students Loi Chek Kim Unversiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia Mehmet Cem Odacıoğlu University of Sakarya, Turkey Shameem Ahmed Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia Shabbir Ahmed Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia Henry Bating Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia Abstract This study reports on a genre-based study examining the employment of communicative purposes )moves) in the body paragraphs of academic essays written by ESδ )English as a Second δanguage) students at a university in εalaysia. A move analysis on the body paragraphs of student English academic essays is carried out using Peacock’s )2002) move-structure model of the discussion section. Students’ perceptions on their academic writing experience elicited through an interview are included as an accompanying data. The present study has pedagogical implications in teaching academic writing to ESδ undergraduate students. Keywords: Communicative purpose, academic writing, interview, pedagogical implication 1. Introduction This study investigates the academic English language needs of ESδ )English as a Second δanguage) students in writing the body paragraphs of English academic essays. The discussion into the students’ English language needs is addressed from )i) a move analysis on body paragraphs of the students’ academic essays and )ii) an accompanying interview data in relation to writing problems/difficulties in an EAP )English for Academic Purposes) classroom. The present study has pedagogical implications. The move analysis on the body paragraphs of student academic essays is based on ]1[’s move structure framework. Non-native speakers may find the forms and functions of English academic writing “ambiguous and incomprehensible” )]2[ cited in ]3[, p.354). The findings will assist ESδ learners to write a ‘good’ discussion section, which )along with the introduction section), is known to be one of the most difficult and complex sections to write ]4[. According to ]5[, using move analyses, students can intentionally exploit the communicative functions and their linguistic 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 features through tasks and materials similar to the ones which they are supposed to understand and write. In addition, the need for examining the body paragraphs )the body paragraph is considered to be functionally similar to the discussion section) has, to a certain extent, been motivated by the increasing importance of the discussion section over time ]6[. Past studies which have been undertaken on the discussion section have identified various move-structure models. In one of the earliest studies on the discussion section, )]6[, p.118) identified eleven moves in the discussion section of ε.Sc. dissertations and articles on irrigation and drainage published in the proceedings of an international conference. These moves include )i) background information, )ii) statement of result, )iii) )un)expected outcome, )iv) reference to previous research, )v) explanation of unexpected results, )vi) exemplification, )vii) deduction, )viii) hypothesis, )ix) reference to previous research, )x) recommendation, and )xi) justification. On the other hand, ]7[ proposed a 9-move structure suggesting a discussion section comprising the following moves, namely: information move statement of result finding )un)expected outcome reference to previous research explanation claim limitation and recommendation These nine moves are suggested along with a three-part framework which includes a series of move cycles combining two or three of the above nine moves. The threepart framework and move cycle series are introduction )information move or information move+reference to previous research or statement of results/findings) evaluation )statement of results/findings+reference to previous research) or )claim+reference to previous research); or )reference to previous research+claim) conclusion )finding+claim, or recommendation). Based on )]6[, p.118) move-structure model of natural science discussion sections, ]8[ proposed a modified version of the model for humanities and social sciences discussion sections which comprises eight moves including a new move ‘outlining parallel or subsequent developments’ which ]8[ found in the concluding paragraphs of history articles. Writers of history articles employed this move to provide a “presentation in summary form of data additional to that given in the main body of the article” )p.324). εoves in ]8[’s model are therefore: background information 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 statement of result )un)expected outcome reference to previous research explanation of unsatisfactory result generalization recommendation outlining parallel or subsequent developments In a more recent study on the discussion section ]1[, articles from seven disciplines were examined, namely physics, biology, environmental science, business, language and linguistics, public and social administration, as well as law using ]7[’s model. ]1[’s model appears to display a more extensive range of communicative categories than ]8[’s model. ]1[’s revised model comprising a three-part framework of move cycles of two or more of the following eight moves, namely: information move )background about theory/research aims/methodology) finding )with or without a reference to a graph or table), expected or unexpected outcome )comment on whether the result is expected or not), reference to previous research, explanation )reasons for expected or unexpected results), claim )contribution to research - sometimes with recommendation for action), limitation and recommendation )suggestion for future research). The present study has two objectives. Firstly, it investigates the rhetorical strategies used in the body paragraphs of ESδ students’ English academic essays. The model of ]1[ as elaborated above was used as the starting points in this study to investigate the rhetorical moves. Secondly, it investigates the writing problems as perceived by these ESδ students through an interview. Interview responses serve as accompanying data to the move analysis. Apart from this, students’ English academic writing problems are diagnosed. The findings have pedagogical implications in an EAP )English for Academic Purposes) classroom. The research questions in the present study are formulated as follows: What are the rhetorical moves employed in the body paragraphs of students’ English academic essays? To what extent does students’ feedback match with findings obtained from the move analysis? What are the writing problems faced by ESδ undergraduate students in an EAP )English for Academic Purposes) classroom? What are the pedagogical implications of the study? 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 2. εethodology In the literature, it is noted that there is a possibility of conflict between observed headings and the apparent rhetorical function of corresponding text. Thus, the textual boundaries between sections are confirmed not only based on the headings, but also on other factors such as content of the discourse, linguistic clues, and the communicative purpose of the text )]9[; ]10[). The body paragraph which occurs between the introduction paragraph and the conclusion paragraph is considered to be functionally similar to the discussion section. Thus, the present study employed an analysis framework of the discussion section to examine the rhetorical patterns employed in the body paragraphs of students’ English academic essays. The present study comprises two parts. The first part is to conduct a move analysis on the body paragraphs of student academic essays using ]1[’s model of the discussion section. For this purpose, 30 body paragraphs of English academic essays written by 30 ESδ students were randomly selected from two EAP classrooms )15 body paragraphs from each of the two EAP classrooms) at University εalaysia Sabah. The body paragraphs were written by student participants from the Faculty of Business and the Faculty of Information Technology. They have obtained εUET )εalaysian University English Test) Band 3 or 4 results and have not taken up any of the English courses at the University prior to taking the EAP course )UB00402). They were required to enrol in the EAP course in their fourth semester that is, after completing their selected foreign language for three semesters. These 30 ESδ students were divided into ten groups of three )5 groups of 3 from each of the two EAP classrooms). Each of these 3-member groups )10 groups) chose one topic from the topic list provided by the individual lecturer and wrote an English academic essay on the topic. The ten English academic essays are on the following topics: )i) The influx of unemployed graduate rate in εalaysia )ii) Restraining prostitution in Klang Valley, Selangor )iii) Precautions for recent flood disaster in εalaysia )iv) Burden of goods and services tax )GST) on lower income group )v) How to overcome human trafficking in εalaysia? )vi) Sexual harassment in the workplace in Kuala δumpur, εalaysia )vii) Identify the solution for divorce problem in εalaysia )viii) Ways to overcome road accidents )ix) Ways to enhance graduate employability through courses offered at UεSKAδ )Universiti εalaysia Sabah, Kampus Antarabangsa δabuan) )x) How to reduce the effect of global warming in εalaysia? Each of the three members in the same group wrote a body paragraph )containing 450-500 words) discussing a solution to the problem/issue posed in the selected essay topic. At the end of the writing process, each of the ten groups produced one introduction, three body paragraphs )each of the three group members wrote one paragraph) and one conclusion. However, only the body paragraphs were examined in the present study. The corpus of the present study hence comprises 30 body 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 paragraphs of ten academic essays written by 30 ESδ students. In the first stage of this study, a move analysis was carried out to code the moves )communicative purposes) in the corpus by using ]1[’s model as a basis to draw up move categories found in the set of data. εove analysis provides the theoretical framework for analysing text )]11[ & ]12[). In move analysis, texts are conventionally divided into elements or stages, which represent the writers’ communicative purposes. These stages are known as “moves” )]11[, p. 141). In the move analysis, when the move emerged in the corpus is not found in ]1[’s move model of the discussion section, a new code was labelled as closely as possible to relate to the function of the move. In the present study, moves were labelled with cardinal numbers )e.g. εove 1, εove 2). The following illustrates a sample of move analysis of a segment from the corpus: E5 One of the ways to solve the influx of unemployed graduate rate in εalaysia is reducing the demand for an unrealistic salary and benefits by the graduates. ]εove 2Finding[ The main reason of fresh graduates being rejected after the interview sessions was because of the unrealistic expectations of salaries… ]εove 6Explanation[…The other way to solve this problem is to improve the soft skills of the undergraduates by boosting their confidence. ]εove 2- Finding[ Basically, soft skills refer to personalities, attributes, qualities and personal behaviour of individuals. ]εove 3- Definition[ … The results of the coding/move analysis were subjected to a quantitative analysis which included the frequency counts of body paragraphs employing the moves. To cater for the second part of the study, an interview was administered to find out the English academic writing experience of ten randomly-selected students from the two EAP classrooms )5 students from each of the two EAP classrooms). Freeresponse questions are formulated for the interview. Such questions will allow target students express their views in their own words )]13[, cited in ]14[, p. 55 or cited in ]15[) as well as to give more opportunities to explore many possibilities that individuals might create a question )]16[ cited in ]14[, p. 55). For the first part of the analysis, the data was coded based on ]1[’s move structure. On the other hand, for the second part of the analysis )interview), the data was coded based on the emerging themes in the participants’ responses. This was conducted by first selecting the relevant key responses and then grouping them according to categories in a coding frame followed by interpretation or key words. In order to enhance coding reliability, the researcher coded the corpus on two occasions separated by one month, then compared the results of the two rounds of coding. When the coding of the particular moves differed greatly between the two sets of coding, the researcher made an attempt to redefine the moves. This process involved repeated readings and making use of linguistic signals/clues )cf. ]17[). 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 3. Results and Discussion In the group academic essay assignments, students seem to favour using εove 2 )Finding) )100% of the body paragraphs) and εove 6 )Explanation) )100% of the body paragraphs). This is followed by εove 5 )Reference to previous research) )90% of the body paragraphs), εove 7 )Examples) )50% of the body paragraphs) as well as εove 10 )Elaboration) )50% of the body paragraphs) and εove 9 )Evaluation) )40% of the body paragraphs). The following three moves, namely εove 4 )Deduction), εove 8 )Quotes) and εove 1 )Background information) are rarely used in the body paragraphs of students’ academic essays )only 10% of the corpus employing each of these three moves). This move analysis result is tabulated in Table 1: Table 1 Frequency and percentage of the body paragraphs of student academic essays employing the moves εove N 3 εove 1 Background information and/or εove 2 Finding )provide solutions to and/or 30 the selected issue) εove 3 Definition and/or 9 εove 4 Deduction and/or 3 εove 5 Reference to previous research 27 and/or εove 6 Explanation )reasons for the given solutions) 30 and/or εove 7 Examples and/or 15 εove 8 Quotes and/or 3 εove 9 Evaluation and/or 12 εove 10 Elaboration 15 % 10% 100% 30% 10% 90% 100% 50% 10% 40% 50% The findings )εove 2) are about solutions to the issue investigated. Some examples of εove 2 are as follows. The examples presented below are taken from the student work and thus contain grammatical errors. E2 One of the solutions that we think best fit to overcome the problem that been facing ]that has been faced[ by the government regarding the issues of human trafficking in εalaysia are by tighten ]tightening[ up the border security around the country. ]εove 2-Findings[ E5 One of the ways to solve the influx of unemployment graduate rate in εalaysia is by reducing the demand for an unrealistic salary and benefits by the graduates. ]εove 2Findings[ E9 Firstly, one of the way ]ways[ to prevent prostitution in εalaysia is by enforcing the εalaysian law. ]εove 2-Findings[ 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The solution to a problem is sometimes followed by an elaboration )εove 10) )50% of the body paragraphs). An example )E12) from the corpus is presented below: E12 One of the easier attempts at ]to[ minimize the aftermath of implementation of GST is to raise minimum wages of lower income group.]εove 2- Finding[ According to this point of view, the minimum view had been standardize ]standardized[ by εalaysian government since 2012 but it ]is[ not enough for the lower income group to cover their expenses when GST begin ]begins[ to be implemented and goods price will be increase ]increased[ as well. ]εove 10- Elaboration[ The finding is however commonly followed by an explanation )εove 6) )100% of the body paragraphs). This phenomenon is shown in the following examples: E5 … ]εove 2-Findings[. The main reason of fresh graduates being rejected after the interview process was because of the unrealistic expectations of salaries, … )Aruna, 2011) ]εove 6-Explanation[ E9 … ]εove 2-Findings[. Advocacy is important in HIV prevention because it can enable things to be done which a single organization could not do on its own, … ]εove 6-Explanation[ E13 Besides that, enhancement of public transport system is also a crucial part of the solutions to reduce financial problem of low income group ]εove 2-Findings[. This is because they are unaffordable to own a vehicle and public transport is the only choice for them to commute. ]εove 6-Explanation[ The explanation is quite frequently supported by reference to previous research )εove 5) )90% of the body paragraphs). The following E 9 and E11 show the use of an integral citation and a non-integral citation respectively to indicate the source of the paraphrased information. The paraphrased information is used by students to support their arguments/points. E11 Punctuality of public transport, especially buses and trains is an issue that had been the challenge and addressed by government for decades )Ibrahim, 2014). ]εove 5Reference to previous research[ E9 One of the ways to prevent prostitution in εalaysia is by enforcing the εalaysia law ]εove 2-Findings[. Special Committee on Pornography and Prostitution )1985) says that … ]εove 5- Reference to previous research[ Students sometimes use the example move )εove 7) )50% of the body paragraphs) as supporting details to main ideas. E16 exemplifies the phenomenon: E16 They should do monitoring regularly especially at the road that have higher potential of having a bad road condition ]on roads that have higher potential of having bad road conditions[. For example, the road that usually ]roads that are usually[ used by heavy vehicles such as lorry ]lorries[. ]εove 7-Examples[ E17 …Other examples are drivers failing to signal a turn and overtaking other cars without due care. ]εove 7-Examples[ In addition to the εove 7 )examples), although rarely used, quotes ]εove 8[ )10% of the body paragraphs) are used to support one’s arguments as shown in the example 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 )E18) below: E18 Our government should reschedule our laws or acts especially related to our environment as according to Benjamin Franklin’s words “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”. ]εove 8-Quotes[ Another move, Deduction )εove 4) which purpose is to draw inferences/conclusions from the findings, is rarely found in the corpus )10% of the body paragraphs). One example from the corpus is presented below: E9 Over Rε10000 of the fund will be channel ]channelled[ to HIV prevention programs for sex workers and transgender )The Star 2012). ]εove 2[ These show that our governments have taken ]our government has raised[ awareness about this scenario… ]εove 4-Deduction[ Three other moves which are employed in not more than 40% of the corpus are background information )εove 1), definition )εove 3) and evaluation )εove 9). Only one body paragraph )10% of the body paragraphs) )see E1 below) provides the background information )obtained from past studies) on a variable examined in the current study while 9 body paragraphs )30% of the body paragraphs) include the definition of terms )εove 3) and 12 body paragraphs )40% of the body paragraphs) use evaluation )εove 9). E15 shows a term is defined in the body paragraph while E9 shows an evaluation is made: E1 εany studies have been done and the development of conceptual models identifying antecedents and … According to the documents, work place harassment occurs due to many reasons in the organizational climates and person behaviour. These document is ]documents are[ by Fitzgerald, δouise F.; Drasgow, Fritz; … )1997) ]εove 1-Background information[ E15 Sexual harassment define ]is defined[ as unwelcome sexual advances, request for sexual favours, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature … )haberman, Omega Hr Solutions, 2013). ]εove 3-Definition[ E9 Those programs may help out for their working skills, communication skills and boosting up their confidence. ]εove 9-Evaluation[ In addition to the above move analysis, the interview data was analysed to present the ten student participants’ opinions on their academic writing experience/problems. For Item 1 )The most difficult paragraph to write in English academic essays) )see Table 2), it is found that the majority of the students find the body paragraph to be the most difficult section to write )7 students). This is followed by the introductory paragraph )2 students) and the conclusion paragraph )1 student). Two participants’ responses reflecting this phenomenon are presented below: Yes, I find it challenging to write the body paragraph of my academic prose because sometimes it is not easy to find the supporting information that is good enough to attract the reader’s attention – Participant B Yes, I find it difficult to write the body paragraph as I need to find the suitable points or ideas. I also find difficulty in elaborating with strong evidence – Participant E 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Table 2 Students’ feedback on the most difficult paragraph to write in English academic essays Item 1 The most difficult Introductory section to write paragraph Number of students 2 Body paragraph 7 Conclusion paragraph 1 For responses to Item 2 )Aspects students tend to include in the body paragraphs of English academic essays) )see Table 3), most of them perceive that they tend to explain )9 students) and provide examples )7 students) more than to evaluate )5 students), elaborate )4 students) and justify )2 students) as reflected in the following Table 3. As observed, evaluation, elaboration and justification are the three least preferred rhetorical strategies among these students. These findings reveal a match between the results of the move analysis and the students’ perception in terms of their preference in the use of ‘explanation’ compared to ‘evaluation’. Students perceive that they tend to explain )9 out of 10 students; 90%) rather than to evaluate )5 out of 10 students; 50%). Similarly, as shown in the move analysis, ‘evaluation’ is only found in 12 out of the 30 body paragraphs )40% of the body paragraphs) while ‘explanation’ is found in all the 30 body paragraphs )100%) )see Table 1). Table 3 Aspects that students tend to include in the body paragraphs of English academic essays Item 2 Aspects elaboration examples Explanation students tend to include in the body paragraph Number of 4 7 9 students justification Evaluation 2 5 The explanations provided by the student participants mainly focused on the possible solutions to the problem/issue examined in their project. To these students, it is more important for them to explain rather than to evaluate the solutions. The students pointed out that as the writer, it is his/her responsibility to explicitly explain the solutions while it is the responsibility of the reader to evaluate the given solutions. Some of their answers are presented below: I tend to explain more rather than evaluate because I want to let the reader understand about my solutions to the given problem and these solutions might help them – Participant B I explain the solutions to the problem because by explaining, I can let the reader know how the solutions can rectify the problem – Participant G 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 I will explain the solutions to the given problem because there are quite a number of linguistic terms that general reader would not understand; … - Participant A Yes, I tend to explain more on the solutions rather than evaluating the solutions. I let the reader decide and evaluate my proposed solution - Participant J The next preferred rhetorical strategy is by giving examples. These students mentioned that they use examples to present their explanation clearly and more effectively as reflected in one of the comments: I am more keen to explain the solutions to the given problem and I can provide clear examples to illustrate the situation – Participant δ In sum, five rhetorical strategies, namely explanation, examples, evaluation, elaboration and justification are used by these students in the body paragraphs of their English academic essays. In addition, the interview poses a free-response question on the writing problems encountered by these student participants while writing up their English academic essays. Table 4 represents a list of writing problems emerged from the participants’ responses. Table 4 Writing problems faced by students Item 3 )Writing problem) Expressing main ideas Insufficient supporting details Grammar δack of information source δimited vocabulary or knowledge of linguistic terms Organization of ideas in terms of rhetorical strategies Number of students facing the particular writing problem 2 3 9 4 7 8 As shown in Table 4, the majority of the participants )9 out of 10 students) state that they face problem in using the correct grammar when writing the body paragraphs of their English academic essays. This is followed by other writing problems, namely organization of ideas in terms of rhetorical strategies )8 out of 10 students), limited vocabulary or knowledge of linguistic terms )7 out of 10 students), lack of information source )4 out of 10 students), insufficient supporting details )3 out of 10 students) and expressing main ideas )2 out of 10 students). Some examples of students’ responses are presented below: I find it difficult to use the right grammar and to organise the sentencesParticipant H The writing problem that I face while writing up this assignment is having insufficient vocabularies and making grammatical errors that I have not realised – 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Participant B The writing problem I face while writing up this academic prose is that there are not many available resources that I can use to do a research on the topic of my academic essay … - Participant E I have limited vocabularies. I used simple vocabularies that might appear to be not academic enough to the readers. εost of the available resources are written by bloggers or the public. In order to write a good body paragraph, I need to search information from reliable resources – Participant H Responses to the interview on Item 3 )Writing problems faced by students) )see Table 4) show that in addition to finding great difficulty in the content/structure of academic texts )e.g. expressing main ideas/organising the ideas in terms of using rhetorical strategies), students also find great difficulty with the language use )e.g. grammar and limited vocabulary/knowledge of linguistic terms). This phenomenon is consistent with ]18[’s study that they found 75% of the respondents had problem in generating ideas for writing and their writing problems are mainly related to their command of the English language. This could be because these ESδ students tend to use direct translation from their mother tongues and unable to use tenses, subject-verb agreement and preposition correctly ]14[. As linguistic ability along with sociolinguistic ability play a vital role in enhancing communicative competence ]19[, the present study looks further into students’ body paragraphs to discover the types of grammatical errors commonly made. Table 5 depicts the common grammatical errors found in body paragraphs and the total number of body paragraphs that contain these grammatical errors. The results show that students tend to make grammatical errors with regard to ‘redundancy of expressions’ )100% of the body paragraphs) followed by ‘passive voice’ )90% of the body paragraphs), ‘subject-verb agreement’ )70% of the body paragraphs), ‘gerund and ‘to’ infinitive’ )40% of the body paragraphs) and ‘possessive’ )20% of the body paragraphs). Table 5 Common grammatical errors found in student body paragraphs Item 4 )Common grammatical errors) Total number of body paragraphs having the grammatical error Redundancy of expressions 30 )100%) Passive Voice 27 )90%) Subject-verb agreement 21 )70%) Gerund and ‘to’ infinitive 12 )40%) Possessive 6 )20%) Grammatical sentences will help realize the writer’s intended communicative purposes effectively as noted by )]20[, p. 101) that “Correct grammar keeps from being misunderstood and lets us effectively express our thoughts and ideas”. The grammatical errors identified in the corpus have not facilitated the reader’s 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 comprehension. This is because these errors to a certain extent have not helped realize the communicative purposes effectively. As shown in Table 5, the frequently-found grammatical errors in the corpus are grouped into the following five categories. Some examples obtained from the corpus are presented below to illustrate the phenomenon. The grammatical errors for each of the following categories are presented in italics: )i) Redundancy in expression E9 As noted in government website, it states that the minimum wage for private sector employees has been set at between Rε800 and Rε900 per month. )ii) Passive voice E10 One of the famous welfares that establish ]that is established[ by the government is BRIε )Bantuan Rakyat Satu εalaysia). E14 Road accidents frequently caused ]are frequently caused[ by reckless drivers rather than faulty vehicles. )iii) Subject-verb agreement E11 … and the frequency of public transport service are ]is[ also low too. E12 It is a program that help ]helps[ the couples ]sic[ how to interact with each other. This program help ]helps[ the couples to list out all the issues they are facing and help ]helps[ them become active listeners. E 13 The objectives is ]are[ about increasing community understanding and support for government policies, such as wearing a seat belt or helmet … )iv) Gerund and to-infinitive E12 …. It ]sic[ also against the efforts of the government to reduce traffic congestion by encourage]encouraging[ people taking ]to take[ public transports. E10 Here are the ]sic[ some ways to determining ]determine[ whether you get promoted, hired or fired. )v) Possessive E11 Policemen action ]Policemen’s action[ in giving discounts to motorist ]sic[ with long overdue summons will breed only a culture of apathy )Chua, 2015). 4. Conclusion The present findings have some pedagogical implications in an EAP )English for Academic Purposes) classroom. In ]1[’s suggestions for teaching move structure in the discussion section of a research article, claims )contribution to research/significance of the study), acknowledging limitations and making recommendations are the three significant moves to be taught to NNS )Non-native 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 speaker) students. These three rhetorical strategies have not been employed in the students’ body paragraphs at all. In addition, compared to ]1[’s move-structure framework, quite a number of rhetorical strategies were absent in the body paragraphs of student English academic essays. εore emphasis can be given on these rhetorical strategies. Thus, ]1[’s move structure framework can be used as a term of reference in an EAP classroom by the writing instructors. In order to familiarise students with rhetorical strategies used in articles of their field, technical materials relevant to students’ course of learning should be incorporated while designing reading tasks. In addition to the pedagogical implications discussed above, some implications with reference to the conduction of a need analysis on student perception on writing problems are also drawn from the current study. The present study found that the grammar aspect appears to be one of the most challenging writing problems faced by the student participants. This shows that they are still not proficient enough in using the correct grammar in their English academic essays. Thus, there is still a need to stress on the elements of grammar in an EAP course. Alternatively, students should take up a grammar course before enrolling in the EAP course. With the above recommendations, the mismatch between the EAP course and the students’ actual learning needs can be reduced. The present study suggests a wider sample to be used for future studies and a more comprehensive need analysis which is addressed from the key concepts of ‘target needs’ and ‘learning needs’ as highlighted by ]21[ can be incorporated. The needs analysis of the present study may not be comprehensive enough as it merely serves as an accompanying data to the move analysis. However, the findings are helpful to produce suggestions for pedagogical purposes. ACKNOWδEDGEεENTS This article is part of a larger project. We would like to thank Universiti εalaysia Sabah for the research funding to carry out the project )SBK0064-SSI-2013). REFERENCES ]1[ Peacock, ε. )2002). Communicative moves in the discussion section of research articles. System, 30, 479-497. ]2[ Basturkmen, H. )2009). Commenting on results in published research articles and masters dissertations in language teaching. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 8, 241-251. ]3[ Salimi, S., & Yazdani, ε. )2011). εove analysis of the discussion section of sociolinguistics and testing articles: Are standards met? IPEDR, 26, 354-358. ]4[ εirahayuni, N. K. )2002). Investigating textual structure in native and non-native English research articles: Strategies differences between English and Indonesian writers.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New South Wales. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 ]5[ Brett, P. )1994). A genre analysis of the result section of sociology articles. English for Specific Purposes, 13)1), 47-59. ]6[ Hopkins, A., & Dudley-Evans, T. )1988). A genre-based investigation of the discussion sections in articles and dissertations. English for Specific Purposes, 7, 113122. ]7[ Dudley-Evans, T. )1994). Genre analysis: An approach to text analysis for ESP. In ε. Coulthard )Ed). Advances in Written Text Analysis )pp. 219-228). δondon: Rouledge. ]8[ Holmes, R. )1997). Genre analysis and the social sciences: An investigation of the structure of research article discussion sections in three disciplines. English for Specific Purposes, 16)4), 321-337. ]9[ δin, δ. & Evans, S. )2012). Structural patterns in empirical research: a crossdisciplinary study. English for Specific Purposes, 31, 150-160. ]10[ Yang, R., & Allison, D. )2004). Research articles in applied linguistics: Structures from a functional perspective: English for Specific Purposes, 23, 264-279. ]11[ Swales, J. ε. )1990). Genre analysis. English in academic and research settings. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ]12[ Swales, J. ε. )2004). Research genres: exploration and applications. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ]13[ εackay, R., & Bosquet, ε. )1981). δSP curriculum development – from policy to practice. In εackay, R. & J. Palmer )eds.), Languages for Specific Purposes. Rowley, εA: Newbury House, 1-28. ]14[ Soo, R. S. )2011). Academic English language needs of foundation students in Universiti Industri Selangor. Unpublished εaster Thesis, Universiti εalaya. ]15[ Cowling, J. D. )2007). Needs analysis: Planning a syllabus for a series of intensive workplace courses at a leading Japanese company. English for Specific Purposes, 26, 426-442. ]16[ Creswell, J. W. )2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches )2nd ed.). δondon: Sage Publications. ]17[ δoi, C. K. )2011). Research article introductions in Chinese and English: A comparative genre-based study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. ]18[ Normah Abdullah & Suzana εeor Abdul Aziz )2004). Academic writing: Do assigned readings influence students’ writing styles? In K. Kaur & B. Wijayasuriya )Eds.), Transcending boundaries: Selected papers on ESδ teaching and learning. Petaling Jaya: Sasbadi Sdn. Bhd. ]19[ δi, Z., & Song, ε. )2007). The relationship between traditional English grammar teaching and communicative language teaching. US-China Education Review, 4)1), 62-65. ]20[ Praise, S., & εeenakshi, K. )2015). Importance of grammar in communication. International Journal of Research Studies in δanguage δearning 4)1), 97-101. ]21[ Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. )1987). English for specific purposes: A learningcentered approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 MANIFESTATIONS OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC PARENTS AND COPING STRATEGIES OF THEIR CHILDREN Jacqueline Joy Ancheta Lising Saint Louis University, Philippines ABSTRACT Alcoholism is not just an individual’s problem but a sickness of the whole family. In familial affairs, children are the most vulnerable to carry the psychological burden and manifest in ways which may hinder normal way of living. Through social case studies, thematic analysis and data triangulation, the researcher looked into the lives of children of alcoholics. Nine manifestations of the psychological effects of the alcoholic parents were ascertained: Anger, Fear Due to Violence, Shame, Helplessness and εistrust, Frustration Over Unmet Needs/Seeking Affection, Failure in School/Truancy, Aversive Transmission Effect, δearned Drinking and Aggression, and δow Self-Esteem. As means of coping, all participants ran away from home to either escape the father’s violence or look for ways to provide for their needs. Some engaged in delinquent behaviors, resorted to substance use/abuse and fantasy. Keywords: children of alcoholics, alcoholism, manifestations, coping INTRODUCTION Although there is an increasing awareness about a disease such as alcoholism, the impact of the alcoholic to the family members he/she is staying with remains untapped. Cardenas )1986) affirmed in her study on the psychological effects of alcohol ingestion that there is denial on alcoholism’s impact on the poor Filipino family. Elizabeth Stark )1987) referred to the children of alcoholics as “forgotten victims”, and others refer to the tragedy of being unnoticed as “hidden tragedy” or “neglected problem”. Alcoholism studies have been existent for many decades but the alcoholic family remains unnoticed and no interventions are carried out. Alcoholism is defined as a disease condition due to excessive use of alcoholic beverages )Random House Dictionary of English δanguage 1966 as cited by Heffner, 2003), simply put, alcoholism is addiction to alcohol )Colman, 2009). The primary symptom of having it is telling everyone – including oneself – that he/she is not an alcoholic. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical εanual of εental Disorders 4th Edition, Text Revision and Fifth Edition )2000, 2014) as cited in εayo Clinic )2015), alcoholism is a progressive disease that includes problems controlling drinking, being preoccupied with alcohol, continuing to use alcohol even when it causes problems, having to drink more to get the same effect )physical dependence), or having withdrawal symptoms when rapidly decreased or stopped. In further discussions, alcohol abuse is manifested in )a) recurrent use of alcohol resulting in a failure to fulfil major role obligations at work, school, or home; )b) recurrent alcohol use in situations in which it is physically hazardous; )c) recurrent alcohol-related legal problems; )d) Continued alcohol use despite having persistent or recurrent social or 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of alcohol. Alcohol in the Filipino Culture Ackerman )1987) mentioned that the norms of the society must be considered in studying alcoholism. According to Ricardo Zarco, a Filipino sociologist, alcohol addiction is one of the toughest problems and is most common form of addiction among Filipinos )Olarte, 2006). The tagay culture of the Filipino people might have something to do with alcohol addiction. In some barrios, small groups start drinking in the middle of the day and the number gradually increases as passersby are invited to join the drinking. Alcohol drinking has become a part of the Filipino tradition as it gained notoriety by the celebration of Octoberfest, a beer-month where beer festivals are celebrated in major cities of the country with performance famous rock bands. These celebrations can also be traced back in Philippine history wherein Roman Catholicism from the Spanish colonizers has entrenched not just religion but a culture with collective joyous festivities followed by dining, drinking and merrymaking )δabajo, 2010). In a report released by the Geneva-based World Health Organization, Alcohol Statistics )εanila Bulletin, 2011) people are warned about excessive alcohol use saying that its toll in human lives has become increasingly alarming. In the Philippines, a number of cases of sexual and drug abuse, suicide and violence among Filipinos have been caused by habitual drunkenness or alcohol intoxication. )Valbuena, Alcohol and εedia – the Situation in the Philippines, 2001). Dr. Joselito Pascual, a toxicologist and Psychiatrist of the Philippine General Hospital )PGH) as cited by Olarte )2006), said that alcoholism is a disease that is hard to diagnose because alcoholics usually deny that they have a problem to begin with. Alcoholism is not also considered a medical problem by Filipinos. εajority of alcoholics do not submit to medical treatment even if their condition is chronic – even if they are aware that it could lead to serious illnesses. Dr. δynn Panganiban of Philippine General Hospital related that the problem with alcoholics is somewhat the same with other addictions. “They cannot suddenly stop it”, she stated )Olarte, 2006). The reason is because after eight to ten hours without alcohol, a patient starts to feel uneasy and irritable, experience tremors, sweating, and nausea, something that could lead to convulsion without medical condition. Alcoholism is a substance-abuse that is the most difficult to cure not only because the withdrawal period is longer than that of shabu )methamphetamine) but it also continues to be the top most poisoning agent in the Philippines for 19 years )δabajo, 2010).. Alcoholism is a cunning disease; no one knows exactly what causes it. Yet it affects the body, mind, spirit – it affects the individual, the family and the society. The Alcoholic Family Sharon Wegscheider-Cruse )1983) mentioned that an alcoholic home tends to be unhealthy, inhuman and rigid. There are family rules in an alcoholic family. One of which is: alcohol is not the cause of the family problems, someone or something else is at fault; alcoholism is not the problem. The status quo must be maintained at all costs, and everyone must take over the alcoholic’s responsibilities, cover up, protect, accept the rules and not rock the boat. No one may talk about what is happening, and 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 no one may say how she or he is feeling. To abide by these rules is to be safe, to break the rules is to cause disaster )Gravitz and Bowden, 1987). In the book Recovery: A Guide for Adult Children of Alcoholics by Gravitz and Bowden )1987), it was mentioned that the children of alcoholics, at an early age, begin to ignore their own feelings. To cope with the situation and hide the fear of having no one to turn to, children of alcoholics learn to build a façade of strength and competence. Children of alcoholics are people who have been robbed of their childhood )Silverstein, 1990). In an alcoholic home, children are taught to disown what their eyes see and what their ears hear. The denial negated children’s perception of what is actually happening. As a result, they learn to ignore and distrust their own experience. Growing up, the child’s primary source of self-worth is his/her parents. Gravitz and Bowden )1987) noted that when the people who love them most hurt them, children often conclude that there must be something dreadfully wrong with them. In this sense, the children of alcoholics learn to distrust both themselves and others. They learn to endure, to suffer, and to resent. They survive distancing themselves from their feelings and denying their needs, that way, they can tend to the alcoholic parent and support the other who is not. To acknowledge their needs and feelings is too dangerous and too painful. Instead, these children learn to control; they learn to pretend or to lie or both. As a result, they learn to blur, distort and confuse )Greenleaf, 1981). δove becomes confused with caretaking, spontaneity with irrationality, intimacy with smothering, anger with violence. Just as alcoholics blur their view of the world due to alcohol, children blur the boundaries of feelings, thoughts, and behaviours due to the alcoholism of the parents )Gravitz and Bowden, 1987). Transgenerational Alcoholism Alcoholism tends to run in the family. It is generational. And because it is generational it affects the future )Goodwin, 1976). δettieri et.al )1980) suggests that genetic and other biological factors, as well as personality and social-environmental factor contribute to familial alcoholism or the continuous use/abuse of alcohol within the family. Ogborne )2004) discussed that the repeated use of alcohol and other drugs can change the body’s ability to adapt in the presence of these substances. People become less sensitive to the substance and so there is a need to increase the dosage to obtain the desired effects. This loss of sensitivity is called tolerance. It has been suggested )Health Canada, 1999) that all addictive behaviors may be the result of common physiological or biochemical actions in the brain focusing on the neurotransmitter, dopamine. Pleasurable activities, including alcohol use, result from the release of dopamine in the specific areas of the brain and encourage the further use of it. Consequently, these changes may be transferred from a parent to his/her offspring. Evidence also suggests that people with substance use/abuse problems have a genetically determined brain disorder involving the prefrontal lobes )Tarter et al., 1988). The relevant neurological disturbances may involve the brain’s “executive” functions of planning and goal formulation, persistence, self-monitoring and selfevaluation which are very much related to personality traits. Tarter et al. )1988), suggested that problem drinking can be determined through people who have alcohol problems from an early age )late teens to early 20s) and strong antisocial tendencies. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The relationship between substance abuse problems and various types of mental illness has also been considered in a number of studies )εiller, 1994; Health Canada, 2002). The study of Reiger )1990) suggests that people who qualified for a diagnosis of substance abuse also had one or more mental disorders at some point during their lifetime. εost common were anxiety disorder )28%), depression and other mood disorders )26%), antisocial personality disorder )18 %percent) and schizophrenia )7%). The use of alcohol and other drugs activates two basic learning mechanisms. Sherman )1988) identified the first as classical conditioning, this occurs when an initially neutral stimulus eventually produces the same responses as an existing stimulus with which it has been paired. Classical conditioning has been used to account for increased tolerance of the effects of alcohol and other drugs. The second learning process activated by substance use is operant conditioning )εello & εendelson, 1965). This occurs when behaviours are shaped by their consequences. Positive reinforcements )rewards) are used to increase the frequency of specific behaviours in specific situations, and negative reinforcement )withholding of rewards) or punishments are used to decrease or eliminate behaviours. All drugs used for pleasure can act as positive reinforcers )Ogborne, 2004). One apparent problem with this view of substance-use is that many people continue to use alcohol and other drugs despite negative consequences such as hangovers, ill health, and social and legal problems. However, negative consequences do not occur immediately after alcohol or other drug consumption. The immediate effects )the effects of the substance and the relief of withdrawal symptoms) continue to be positive and reinforcing. The reinforcing effect of alcohol can also be related to stress-reduction. Cohen and Baum )1995) stated that the use of alcohol and other drugs can relieve stress, which may motivate and sustain a person’s consumption. In Social δearning Theory )Bandura, 1977), which emphasizes that learning takes place through modelling, and is shaped by consequences under the control of the individual, a child who sees an alcoholic parent seeking relief through alcohol may learn the association of alcohol drinking and stress-reduction. εarlatt and Gordon )1985) have also given rise to the notions of learned helplessness )belief in loss of control) and abstinence violation effects )“I have relapsed and so all is lost”). Alcoholism tends to run in families. Children of alcoholic parents are more at risk for alcoholism and other drug abuse. εany researchers have considered various reasons why alcoholism tends to run in the family, a term more commonly known in the field as “transgenerational familial alcoholism”. In 1960s it was suggested that people intimately involved with the alcoholic may also have a parallel disease which was later referred to as co-alcoholism or co-dependency )Gravitz and Bowden, 1987). As the alcoholism continuous to dominate inside the family, there will be a parallel breakdown. Family systems theory views individuals’ behavior as being determined and sustained by the dynamics and demands of the key people with whom they interact )Pearlman, 1988). Goplerud )1990) listed some family-related factors that can contribute to the onset and maintenance of alcohol abuse, this includes: poverty, membership in a group devalued by the larger society, alcohol and other drug problems among family members, parental abuse and neglect, parental separation, low cohesion and low mutual support. Effects of Alcoholism to Children and Family 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The family of an alcoholic is inconsistent, unpredictable, arbitrary and chaotic )Gravitz and Bowden, 1982). In a family where there is an alcoholic father, the father’s addictive behaviour disrupts the whole family environment: the compulsive loss of control, the withdrawal symptoms, the blackouts, the abnormal alcohol tolerance, the physical effects, the psychological effects, and the social effects all have great implications on the family )εartin, 1988). The environment thus ceases to be nurturing, growth-enhancing and consistent. εarital relationships in alcoholic families are said to be chaotic and problematic )American Psychiatric Association, 1980 as cited by Tuason, 1994). The children and the non-alcoholic parent are described as powerless and without control of their own lives and of situations in the family )Estes and Heinemann, 1977). Children and other family members are taught to maintain silence. When feelings are expressed, it is done in a judgmental and blaming tone )Black, 1981). The stresses in the family produce an abnormal amount of separation among brothers and sisters )Estes and Heinemann, 1977). There is an escalation of negative feelings and distrust, and these are what family members learn. In an alcoholic home, the basic mood is mostly angry, antagonistic, hopeless, or in despair. The profile of a Filipino alcoholic family as stated in the case study of Tuason )1994) is often characterized by a father who turns into alcohol for a sense of power in his otherwise powerless situation. The effects of alcohol make him violent. εost of the wives ignore or deny their husband’s drunkenness, preferring to remain quiet and do whatever their husbands’ desire. The other wives fight back and lose control as well. The children are generally afraid thus they remain quiet and obey everything they are made to do. They are cautious and hardly speak. They serve as support systems to the mother and in the process of being neglectful of their own needs and feelings; they cushion the blows in the home. The wives and children feel they suffer from the alcoholic’s loss of control, his anger outbursts, the violence he expresses, the hurt and the fear he inflicts, the demands and the forcefulness, the shouting and the fights. The fathers become unavailable and inaccessible to their families. They are unable to help in the household and to support their wives in all their problems and struggles. The wife learns to earn the money, take care of the children by herself, and is relied on for every concern in the house. She covers up for the absentee father and sacrifices for the good of everyone else. The mother assures, sometimes even beyond her capacities, the survival of everyone. She is now known as the taga-salo )Carandang, 1981). Thus she is also suffering from the parallel disease which was mentioned earlier as codependency )Beattie, 1987). The editorial staff of The Bohol Standard )an online news publication) tried to call the attention of Filipinos by publishing the article “Alcoholism is Destroying Filipino Families” )2012). The article pointed that the Philippines has a very serious problem on alcoholism. The fact is whenever and wherever there is a drunk in any situation, murder is likely to happen. This article also quoted that in the Philippines, “alcoholism is killing our people, destroying our families, hampering our march of progress”. The effects of alcoholism ranges from a simple blackout into family disruptions and violence. For both males and females, witnessing paternal perpetration predicted family violence perpetration and witnessing reciprocal violence predicts victimization. Boys 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 who grow up in the families where the father or grandfather physically abuses the mother or grandmother will learn this behaviour and develop into wife-beaters. A similar experience in girls might increase the risk of being battered wives later in their lives; the girls might also become alcoholic and violent like their mothers )Hill & Hruska 1992). Jayaseelan )2004) found evidence in a study in India among 506 married women in δucknow that those who witnessed their fathers beating their mothers during childhood were at higher risk of spousal abuse. In the book “The Path to Healing: A primer on family violence” of Dr. Carandang )2004), the case studies of the Catapang and Panata families showed intergenerational transmission of almost all kinds of abuse. Studies conclusively indicates that children from alcoholic family systems are more prone to develop life-long psychological and/or behavioural problems than children from non-alcohol-focused family systems )Black, 1981; Crespi, 1990; Jacob et.al, 1999; Woititz, 1985,1983). The children call it as sadness, and adults call this depression. They are common emotional reactions to parental drinking and to ensuing family conflict )Clair & Genest, 1987; εoos & Billings, 1982). Children who are suffering from the alcoholic family have tendency to feel insecure, embarrassed, confused, and guilty often believing themselves to be responsible for their parents’ problems. The children may suffer from feelings of inadequacy and may have problems developing trust )Cork, 1969). The children are robbed of attention, consistent discipline, and a trustworthy environment )Estes &Heinemenn, 1977; Benson & Heller, 1987).. Tuason )1994) stated that the children are always scared because of the unpredictability of the situation inside the home. No one knows what will happen. Anything can happen. It is not allowed to relax – or be a child. Children of alcoholics have a high rate of behavioural problems such as: lack of empathy, decreased social adequacy and interpersonal adaptability; and lack of control in the environment. They avoid peer activities, especially in the home out of fear and shame. Children of alcoholics are at risk for abuse, eating disorders, conduct disorders, alcoholism, communication problems, relational deficits, and problems with intimacy )Whipple et.al., 1995; Chassin et.al., 1991; Jacob et.al., 1991; West & Prinz, 1987). Woititz )1983) identified thirteen long-term after-effects of alcoholics to adult children of alcoholics )ACOAs) characterized by: guessing what normal behavior is, difficulty finishing projects, lying, self-judgment, difficulty having fun, taking themselves seriously, difficulty with intimate relationships, overreaction to situations they have no control, seeking approval and affirmation, feeling different from other people, responsible and irresponsible, extremely loyal and impulsive. Externalizing psychopathology may emerge as “acting out” characterized by rule breaking, defiance, aggression, inattention and impulsivity. In a sampling of developmental research conducted on children of alcoholics at different stages of development reveals that pre-school and young children have demonstrated behavioral problems, vulnerabilities to aggressive and delinquent behavior, and difficulties in such areas as academic achievement and cognitive functioning )Puttler et.al., 1998); adolescents have demonstrated negative academic performances in English and εath, as well as negative psychological and substance abuse outcomes )εcGrath et.al., 1999; West and Prinz, 1987); and increased marital conflict, decreased family cohesion, and role distress has been reported in a middle-aged sample )Domenico and Windle, 1993). 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 In the book “The Forgotten Children” by εargaret Cork )1969), it was mentioned that for the majority of the children, school held little sense of adventure or achievement. When children did poorly in school, they were castigated or belittled by their parents and when they did well, they receive little recognition at home. It is difficult for children to study at home where chaos is a norm. Anxiety is a common interference in an unpredictably, violent home. And even though most parents would demand good grades from their children, they do little to provide a supportive environment at home. Cork )1969) noted that often, alcoholism zaps 90 percent of children’s energies and they may only have 10 percent to give in the classroom. Children become so preoccupied with maintaining calm and sanity at home that they may never think of school. All the energies they have are dedicated to the alcoholic parent and trying to control and stabilize their situation. Children of alcoholics attend more schools yet are found out to absent more because of having sleepless nights or staying at home to protect the non-alcoholic parent, usually the mother, from the alcoholic parent )Wilson and Oxford, 1978). Coping Strategies of Children and Family εembers According to Tuason )2004), the non-alcoholic parent and children cope with alcoholism by not doing and not talking about the alcoholism. Family members should not express their reactions, they have to keep quiet, and they have to keep their thoughts and emotions inside. They cope by acting like parents. Acting out their parents’ roles and fulfilling their parents’ wishes. Ackerman )1987 and 2001), listed phases of coping among COAs: Reactive, Active, Alternative and Unity Phase. During the reactive phase, most family members become extremely cautious of their behavior in order to avoid or further complicate the existing problems. Denial is functional for the continuation of drinking. Verbal coping strategies do a lot to raise anxiety and sometimes are interpreted as “nagging” or persecution on the side of the alcoholic. Behavioural coping strategies on the other hand are actions knowingly or unknowingly done by non-alcoholic members to cope with their situation which includes hiding alcohol, refusing to buy alcohol, marking bottles, avoiding the alcoholic, or other family members, staying away from home, and isolating oneself. Children become socially disengaged from friends, family, community and themselves. This is because the family feels that it must protect itself, has been embarrassed, or fears future encounters with others where the alcoholic is present. The non-alcoholic parent takes a job away from the problem to maintain financial security yet risks the fact of being absent in the family. The second phase is the attempt of non-alcoholic members to gain some control over their own lives. They recognize the problem and they need help. They begin to become involved in educational, counselling, and self-help programs that are available to them. The non-alcoholic parent supports the children to become involved in school and group activities, encouraging family conversations and sharing of feelings. Alternative Phase is the third. This begins when all else failed and when separation becomes the only viable alternative to survive alcoholism. Family members begin to withdraw from each other and are often forced into “choosing sides”. εore often accompanied by feelings of confusion, torn loyalties, fear, resentment, anger and increased isolation. Separation from the alcoholic will bring change. Children might find themselves with added responsibilities. Unity Phase an 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 ideal phase wherein very few families have reached. Wegscheider )1976) and Black )1982) proposed different coping strategies of children of alcoholics. One becomes The Hero or Responsible child whose good performance in school is a façade to cover of inadequacy and poor self-esteem. This child has an overdeveloped sense of competence and accomplishment. Some might become the Scapegoat of Acting Out Child who thinks he cannot compete with achievements so he takes the attention of the family by internalizing frustrations and getting into trouble. Being social misfits, they become outcasts who are outwardly destructive yet angry, scared, lonely and deeply hurt inside. The δost Child or the Adjusters are children who do not know where they fit in the family or in school. These children plays alone, stare at the ceiling, daydream and stay quiet. Sometimes, they turn their anger inward and hurt themselves through suicide or drug abuse. The εascots are the children who take off the spotlight from the alcoholic by being cute and acting silly. Their role is to lighten the family’s burden by diversion through humor and fun. Yet the jovial nature is only cover up for opposite feelings of fear and sadness that they harbour from the alcoholic parent’s daily verbal and physical abuses. δastly, the Placater begins to diffuse the tension in the room and as much as possible resolve to negotiations. They work hard in taking care of everyone’s feelings and needs – everyone except their own. At home, they support the mother who is typically the non-alcoholic and pleases the alcoholic parent. In 1984 δazarus and Folkman proposed two kinds of coping. Problem-focused can be directed outward to alter some aspect of the environment or inward to alter some aspect of the self. Emotion- focused coping strategies are directed toward decreasing distress. These tactics include such efforts as distancing, avoiding the alcoholic, selective attention, blaming, seeking social support and venting emotions. The emotion-focused coping strategy is in-line with the study of Estes and Heinemenn )1977), it was observed that family members of alcoholics deal with problems by finding their own means of escape, immersing themselves in work or hobbies, or sinking into apathy and depression. STATEεENT OF THE PROBδEε The study aims to describe the life of the children of alcoholics. Specifically, the study seeks to identify: )1) the manifestations of the psychological effects of alcoholic parents to their children and family, and )2) the coping strategies of children inside and outside their homes in order to adjust and survive their situation. εETHODS AND PROCEDURES The research is qualitative in nature with the aim of determining the psychological effects of alcoholic parents to their children. A total of 11 male participants )11-17 years old) were invited in the study. The participants are currently residing at the People’s Recovery Empowerment Development Assistance )PREDA) – a therapeutic center for children in conflict with the law. Category Average family size Frequency 8 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Average number of children in the family Father employed )driving, construction, fishing, farming, vending) εother employed )housemaid, manicurist, laundry, vending) With other kin )grandparents, aunts) Parents’ )a) Separated )legally or not) relationship )b) δiving together )c) One parent deceased Community of the )a) Squatter’s area )slums and other depressed family wherein regions) )b) Fishing/Farming community )c) Others )Resettlement and far-flung areas) Characteristics of Children εean age )years) With high school education With elementary education With history of scavenging, theft, vagrancy and substance use/abuse Table 1 Sociodemographic Profile of Child Participants 5 91% 35% 36% 46% 45% 9% 55% 36% 9% 15.4 9% 55% 100% The social worker inquiry aided in selecting the children who fit the characteristics of the participants needed in the study as per criterion based on the DSε IV-TR and DSε-5 and also in clarifying the documents in the Social Case Profiles of the participants. Social Case Profiles were studied and guide questions for the semi-structured interview were formulated. During the interview, follow-up questions emerged from immediate circumstance and were asked for further inquiry and clarification. The data gathered was enriched by home visitations and observation of the condition of the alcoholic family was recorded in a journal. Thematic analysis was done to explore and discover the reality of the participants without fitting the realities into a predetermined theoretical perspective. The information gathered from the sources were put together to produce a detailed description by coding emergent themes. The statistics shown in figures and percentages were calculated in the purpose of giving precise details and are used as descriptive rather than quantitative. Social case profile summaries, interview audio transcription and summaries were sent to one more researcher for triangulation. Triangulation is an approach in social researches. It refers to use of more than one approach )document and investigator triangulation) to the investigation of a research question in order to enhance confidence in the ensuing findings. Since much social research is founded on the use of single research method and as such may suffer from limitations associated with the method or from specific application, triangulation offers the prospect of enhanced confidence )Brymann, 2004). This is also a strategy for increasing the validity of evaluation and research findings )Yeasmin and Rahman, 2012). RESUδTS AND DISCUSSIONS Profile of the Alcoholic Fathers and the Family The study depicted a picture of an alcoholic father and their families drawn from the shared experiences of the children of alcoholics who participated in this 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 study. εost of the fathers have menial jobs as construction worker, taxi or tricycle driver, farmer and fisherman. Some of them are separated from their wives and some, even though still living together, are constantly in arguments and fights resulting to physical abuse. These fights frequently stem from the suspicion of the father about a possible affair of the mother and financial difficulties because the father’s inability to provide for the family. This is due to the fact that he was not able to go to work caused by hangover or the income that he earned from work was used to buy alcohol or to gamble. εany times, even if the fathers have jobs, they allot more time in drinking alcohol with their compadres, consuming Emperador, Red Horse and Gin )local alcoholic beverages). The alcoholism of the father also becomes the concern of the mother and children. When the father comes home drunk, it is either he berates the mother and children, or stumbles on things and be taken care of or the home becomes chaotic. The parents shout at each other and throw things, breaking plates and glasses and hit each other with a plank of wood. Oftentimes they are seen yelling at each other outside the house. On conditions when the father and children lives with the grandmother )mother of the alcoholic), the father argues and talks back to the grandmother when his drinking behaviour is being noticed. In some circumstances, the fathers run amok in the neighbourhood. εanifestations of the Psychological Effects of Alcoholic Parents to Their Children Anger. Participants in the present study expressed deep anger towards their fathers brought about by their experiences in the hands of the parent. The children talked about the constant argument their parents have and the incidents when they were subjected to beatings. They harbor anger and blame their alcoholic fathers for the family situation expressing that the father’s alcoholism hindered his ability to work and provide for the family. The beatings were done with objects, often brooms and thick woods. Arguments were done in public. There was an attempt of retaliation and fighting back but was suppressed due the thought that it was the father who is providing for the family. Fear Due to Violence at Home. Fear is often experienced by the children due to constant exposure to verbal and physical abuse. All of the physical abuse )beating with a wood, hitting with a belt and towel, punching, pushing against the wall and kicking) and verbal abuse )constantly scolding the child and telling him that he is useless) occurred whenever the father is drunk. The participants were not the only ones subjected to violence but also their siblings and mother. Some children thought of stopping their abusive father but the terror overwhelmed them and even asked if there is a possibility of getting used to the abuses. The hostility of the alcoholic fathers is also evident during home visitations when one slammed the door upon seeing the social workers. The other intoxicated father talked to the social workers, enraged and blaming his child for the child’s current condition. Feelings of Shame. The children felt embarrassed or ashamed regarding their fathers’ alcoholism and the current condition of their family especially when the neighbors witness the usual fights between their alcoholic fathers and the mothers. The arguments inside the house were heard by neighbors due to thin walls or close house 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 distances. Children choose to keep quiet and not talk regarding their present situation. They believe that speaking about the family warrants other children to tease them. On some circumstances, their neighbors shout at them for disturbing the neighborhood which in turn causes embarrassment to the members of the alcoholic family. They cannot tell their story because there is a possibility that people will talk about them. Actions of the alcoholic parent caused humiliation to the children – stumbling on the ground when drunk, being in debt for constant store credits usually alcoholic beverages and shouting at random people on the street. The children are the ones making excuses for them when they missed work because of being drunk the night before. Helplessness and εistrust. Children of alcoholics admitted surrendering to their current situation. They believe they have no power as constantly being told so by their mothers and fathers. The family has no problem; there is no action to be done. Even if there is, calling out to other people will not make any difference. Telling the teachers about the family situation will only result to sympathy but no action. Neighbours are just bystanders whenever there is a violent abuse happening inside or outside the house. Other people tend to shut their windows and close their doors to avoid getting involved. Stopping their alcoholic father from beating up their mother causes more turmoil and they ended up being the subject to more severe beatings. Due to this, the children learned there is nothing they can do about the situation. They cannot trust themselves in handling the situation and they cannot trust other people when it comes to helping them. The alcoholic home is extremely chaotic, characterized by the parents’ unpredictable mood swings, sudden anger, fast cooling period and moments of silence. Seldom, when the alcoholic parent is in good mood, it is usually a premonition of something bad that will happen next. It is difficult to respond to the family situation because the mood is always unpredictable. When mothers were asked why they were crying, they answer that nothing is wrong. When asked if the father is sick, the mother answers that the father is fine. When promises for food on the table never materialized – when parents are emotionally dishonest, the children assume they cannot be trusted. Frustration Over Unmet Needs and Strong Need for Affection. There is an expression of disappointment among children of alcoholics because their fathers were not able to provide food and other basic needs for the family. This is due to the fact that the father is either preoccupied with drinking or the money earned from the job was spent on buying more bottles of alcohol. When the mother is away, it is often the sister or grandmother who takes care of the siblings and the drunken father. When the mother is absent, food is usually given by concerned neighbors. COAs acknowledge their longing for care and attention from both their parents which rarely happens. The alcoholic father is fixated on alcohol and the non-alcoholic mother is either away because of her job or too busy keeping the family together. Role reversal is typical. The self is often compared to families with normal homes and non-alcoholic parents and eventually results to jealousy and longing. Failure in School/Truancy. Difficulty performing in school is one of the manifestations of the effects of an alcoholic father. Children of alcoholics cannot concentrate in school because of hunger. There is no food at home because the father was not able to provide. Other COAs were forced to quit school because the 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 grandmother cannot afford to send the children and the alcoholic father takes no responsibility for his child. The children are often absent-minded and lack sleep due to the fights happening the night before. Some worries about their mother’s situation at home and other COAs cannot even go back to their homes to get their school things since they are afraid of meeting the alcoholic father and possibly being subjected to more abuse. Aversive Transmission Effect. Children of alcoholics expressed their refusal to become alcoholic just like their fathers. This is despite the fact that they were able to drink alcohol in certain occasions )i.e. birthday celebration of friends). In an aversive transmission, children of alcoholics try to moderate their alcohol drinking because they think they have higher risk of getting addicted. δearned Drinking and Aggression. COAs disclosed that they have learned drinking from their alcoholic fathers. These children were invited during the father’s drinking session and were permitted to drink with them. The father’s alcoholic behavior is an excuse for stress relief and relaxation, thus the child learned the association between the two. Aggression, characterized by beatings and kicking is associated with discipline and anger. Thus, the children learned to beat their siblings when disciplining. They were never taught that anger does not have to be abusive or terrifying. They learn to communicate the way their parents communicate – always angry and shouting. δow Self-Esteem. Sadness and a sense of insignificance are always felt by children of alcoholics. They are often told by their alcoholic father that they are unworthy and useless and blamed for the mother leaving them. The children were scolded for not being able to take care of the siblings. They are punished for not being able to prepare the father’s food on time. The neighbours curse them for not being able to manage their father’s outburst. Alcoholic parents have great effects on their children. As a result, these children have adapted certain coping strategies which allowed them to adjust in their situation. Coping Strategies of Children Flight εode. Children of alcoholics tend to avoid their alcoholic father when the latter comes home drunk. In order to divert attention away from them, the children tend to answer the alcoholic parent’s questions in short, definite sentences and by pretending that they were doing something else. This is due to the fact that the father usually hurt the wife and the children when he is under the influence of alcohol. When there is a disturbance inside the home, children choose to stay outside to avoid getting hit by thrown plates and other things. Some of the children reported they wanted to get away but they were afraid of leaving their mothers behind. In other cases, children leave the house so that they will not witness the beatings that their mothers were subjected into. The alcoholic father’s accusations regarding his wife’s infidelity, his constant berating and his violence made most non-alcoholic mothers leave home. This also holds true for the siblings. Because they live in a small fishing town, some children 144 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 seek comfort by being near the sea. εany times, they sleep in bancas )small fishing boats) because they cannot sleep in their house with their father being noisy and quarrelsome. Since there was too much violence at home or there was no care given, the children of alcoholics chose to stay in the company of other children on the streets away from the alcoholic parent. If there were no other children, they see staying away from home as form of comfort and freedom from the situation inside the house. Delinquent Behaviors. Children of alcoholics discovered the convenience of being on the street with other children. Because there is no food at home, they learned scavenging from peers and took the opportunity to make money. They steal scrap metals and bicycle to buy food. COAs were even caught stealing food in the public market. They learned to steal things that their parents were not able to give them. The participants learned delinquent behaviours on the streets. They learned smoking from peers and stayed on the streets for eight months, sleeping only under flyovers and gasoline stations. Some COAs did these to seek attention from their alcoholic fathers but to no avail. They became vagrant, disturbing the neighbourhood and piling court cases for stealing. Substance Use/Abuse. COAs related that the traumatizing situation in an alcoholic home pushed them to believe that there is a way to forget. These children sniffed solvents such as vulcaseal )sealant) and rugby )adhesive) when they were on the streets. Other participants disclosed drinking alcohol. These are the most common ones because they are readily available and are sold in small portions. The effect of sniffing solvents and drinking alcohol causes such high enough for these children to forget even for a short moment the current situation of their homes. When solvents and alcohol are not enough, they turn to marijuana and eventually get arrested for illegal possession. Resorting to Fantasy. A child of an alcoholic talked about a certain friend he described as almost five feet tall with hair dropping to the shoulders. He first saw this friend when he suffered his father’s worst beating. Usually, he sees this person near the sea where he seeks comfort from his father’s rage. When he transferred to the center, the friend was often seen under the windmill. The social worker and the psychotherapist of the center confirmed that all his stories about the friend were always the same. This means that either it is true for some inexplicable reason or the child strongly believe it is true. However, this fantasy can also be accounted to the child’s lack of cognitive skills as a result of several attempted abortion by his mother with the use of different medicines. Having an imaginary friend also gives a support system to the children of alcoholic. Because they distrust other people, it is more convenient to think of a friend who will always be there in times of need, who does not have any prejudice and judgment and can sympathize in the child’s family situation. Children of alcoholics related they often daydream at school, thinking of a perfect family. The father has a stable job to provide for the family and the mother takes care of the children. For some short moments, school becomes a place of solace before going back to their realities. Coping this way is better because it is predictable and controlled by the child. The decision to opt for marijuana use is also related to the purpose of forgetting. It is cheaper than methamphetamine and more accessible for the children. Stealing a few 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 things from random people would suffice for a brief instance of solitude brought by the effects of marijuana. The homes of children of alcoholics vary from slightly mad to extremely chaotic characterized by constant arguments, violence and disturbances caused by the alcoholic father. Without the supervision of their parents, the children have no real frame of reference, seldom knowing what is good or bad. Because they were always afraid, they do not have the liberty to ask questions. They believe that fairy tales are real. Knowing their lives could never be the same as tales told, they spend a lot of their time yearning it could be. CONCδUSIONS Alcoholic parents usually hold menial jobs like driving, vending, farming, fishing and construction labors which are not enough to provide for the family. Often, the salary from the job is spent to buy alcohol. εost alcoholic Filipino families live in slum areas and small farming and fishing communities. The alcoholic father’s violence towards the mother and children brought deep anger for the children. This is exacerbated by the inability of the father to provide for the family’s basic needs, pushing the mother and children to look for their means of living. The children’s exposure to the father’s violence caused fear and terror to the point that they cannot even go back to their homes. These children felt shame which kept them from telling other people the situation inside the home, often fearing that people might judge them and other children might tease them. The disturbances inside the alcoholic home hindered the COAs in trusting themselves and other people. Because they usually see people as bystanders, they believed that these people will not be able to help them. Their inability to change their current situation rendered them to feel helpless. Frustration and sadness were felt by these children due to the alcoholic father’s failure to provide for the basic needs of the family. The alcoholic father was not able to live up to what is expected by the children and the COAs learned to take over the alcoholic parent’s responsibilities. They felt inferior to other children who have complete families and hoped for their lives to be like them. Children of alcoholics learned to drink and hit their siblings from their alcoholic father. Some have their self-esteem depleted often from being told useless and unworthy by the father, usually blaming them why the mother had left them. Children of alcoholics fail to perform well in school. They are often truant; incur low grades and high number of absenteeism. They are sleepy and have poor concentration due to hunger and other things to think of. 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Bangladesh University of Professionals )BUP) Journal. 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Secondary Mathematics Teachers’ Knowledge of Arithmetic Procedures on Fractions Dr. Mariyam Shahuneeza Naseer Islamic University of Maldives Republic of Maldives Abstract Research indicate that students and sometimes teachers have difficulties with fractions, particularly in understanding the four fundamental arithmetic procedures on fractions. This results in teachers encouraging students to memorize arithmetic procedures necessary to arrive at a solution to problems involving fractions. This type of instruction gives rise to various issues as this form of instruction does not support students’ conceptual understanding. This has lead students to incorrectly generalize arithmetic procedures which cause errors. Understanding the concepts related to the four fundamental arithmetic procedures on fractions is highly essential as this lays the groundwork to understanding more sophisticated mathematical concepts. εoreover, thorough understanding of these concepts help in correctly applying arithmetic operations on abstract mathematical concepts such as algebra. Research shows knowledge of fractions is crucial for success in algebra. Strengthening instruction of concepts related to the four fundamental arithmetic procedures of fractions could improve student achievement in these areas. This study examined in-service secondary school mathematics teachers’ procedural and conceptual knowledge of fundamental arithmetic procedures on fractions. Participants were in-service teachers )N = 32) enrolled in a secondary school mathematics teacher training program in the εaldives. Results indicated that the participants were able to execute arithmetic procedures on fractions correctly without the use of a calculator, however, they lacked conceptual knowledge of these procedures on fractions. Interestingly, 37.5% of the participants )N = 12) were unable to correctly identify fractions. This gives rise to an imperative question whether the school teachers are only taught procedural steps in their teacher training programs. In this paper theoretical and educational implications of the findings are discussed. Key words: arithmetic procedures, fractions, procedural knowledge, conceptual knowledge, instrumental understanding, relational understanding Introduction and Background Fraction is a fundamental topic in mathematics as research shows that competence with fractions predicts later mathematics achievement )for example, Bailey, Hoard, Nugent, & Geary, 2012). Booth, Newton, and Twiss-Garrity )2014) and Empson and δevi )2011) reported that conceptual understanding of knowledge of fractions and their arithmetic operations is central to success in algebra, which lays the foundation for mathematical reasoning and complex problem-solving. Understanding fraction concepts and its arithmetic operations are important not because it is an essential topic in mathematics curriculum but because they are being used in daily practical activities such as cooking, carpentry, and sewing, to name a few. Research indicates that understanding and mastering the concepts and arithmetic operations of fractions is a challenge not only to young students but also to adults and 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 adult learners )Nordvik, 2014). All these evidences draw attention to the importance of understanding and mastering the concepts of fractions and their arithmetic operations. Teachers are responsible for students understanding of subject matter as they serve as the primary source of student understanding of subject matter particularly at early stages of schooling )Naseer, 2016; Shulman, 1987). Research on teacher knowledge has revealed that teachers’ knowledge of mathematical content significantly affected the way concepts were taught and specifically pointed out that teachers who lacked mathematical content knowledge tended to offer limited explanations and focused more procedures assuming that students knew and understood the concepts )Bradshaw, Izsák, Templin, & Jacobson, 2014 ;Ojose, 2014; Shirvani, 2015; Strand & εills, 2014). εoreover, Shirvani )2015) reported that teacher knowledge of mathematical concepts affected the performance of students on mathematics assessments. In short, professional literature has indicated that mathematical content knowledge of teachers played an important role in teaching mathematical concepts in a way that leads to the development of students’ conceptual understanding of the subject matter. A baseline study conducted in the εaldives during 2012-2013 showed that 32.5% of Grade 4 students, 51.5% of Grade 7 students, and 53.7% of Grade 9 students were able to obtain the correct answers for questions on the topic Fractions )United Nations Children’s Fund ]UNICEF[ & National Institute of Education ]NIE[, 2014). According to the baseline study students’ performance in higher order skills such as conceptual questions in mathematics that cannot be answered procedurally or by recalling facts or formulas generally showed low performance )UNICEF & NIE, 2014). εoreover, it reported that though the scores improved across grade levels several misconceptions persist even in higher grades, and in fact many students in higher grades do not understand basic concepts like fractions )UNICEF & NIE, 2014). Research has linked the lack of conceptual understanding with the way teachers delivered concepts, which is influenced by the content and pedagogical knowledge of the teacher )Ball & εcDiarmid, 1990; Chick, Pham, & Baker, 2006; Tennant & Colloff, 2014). Teachers could only engage their students in understanding mathematics only if they themselves understand the mathematical concepts )Timmerman, 2014). Therefore, it is important that teachers are aware of their own understanding of mathematics content knowledge so that can work on improving the weak areas of their mathematics content knowledge through construct mathematical knowledge for themselves. Research shows that mathematical content knowledge of a teacher influences the teacher’s ability to teach mathematics )Piccolo, 2008; Strand & εills, 2014). Examining teachers’ knowledge of arithmetic procedures on fractions would help to identify their strengths and weaknesses with regard to arithmetic procedures on fractions. This would in turn bring a positive social change by informing the direction of needed teacher professional development curriculum. εathematics education researchers have been calling for the better preparation of mathematics teachers )Gurbuz & Toprak, 2014; Ojose, 2014; Tajudin, 2014). The purpose of this study was to examine secondary mathematics teachers' knowledge of arithmetic procedures on fractions to determine their relative strengths and weaknesses to serve as the foundation for the development of teacher professional development curriculum. This study measured teachers’ knowledge of fractions through their instrumental and relational understanding of arithmetic procedures on fractions using a mathematics assessment on fractions and semi-structured interviews. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Instrumental understanding is defined as being able to follow rules without understanding the reasons whereas relational understanding is defined as “knowing both what to do and why” )Skemp, 1987). It is believed that the results of this study also could also contribute towards improving mathematics education in the country by informing teacher training institutions about the strengths and weaknesses with regard to teachers’ knowledge of arithmetic procedures on fractions, which could prove invaluable in designing their courses. Theoretical Framework This study is guided by Richard Skemp’s theory of instrumental and relational understanding )Skemp, 1976 & 1987). Skemp suggested that there are two kinds of learning in mathematics, namely, instrumental understanding and relational understanding. Instrumental understanding is explained as a mechanical, rote or 'learn the rule or method or algorithm' kind of learning )which gives quicker results for the teacher in the short term), e.g. writing 10 would be understood as "this is how we write 10" in instrumental terms )Skemp, 1976 & 1987). Hiebert and Carpenter )1992) used the term procedural knowledge whereas Ball, Thames, and Phelps )2008) referred to as common content knowledge, which included the knowledge and skills of mathematics used in settings other than teaching )Ball, Thames, & Phelps, 2008; Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992; Saderholm, Ronau, Brown, & Collins, 2010; Skemp, 1987). In short, procedural knowledge or instrumental understanding refers to mastery of computational skills and knowledge of procedures )Eisenhart et al., 1993). Relational understanding is explained as a more meaningful learning in which the pupil is able to understand the links and relationships which give mathematics its structure )which is more beneficial in the long term and aids motivation), e.g. writing 10 would be understood as "this is why we write 10 like this )in terms of place value)" in relational terms )Skemp, 1976 & 1987). Ball et al. )2008) used the term specialized content knowledge to refer to relational understanding, whereas Hiebert and Carpenter used conceptual understanding to refer to what Skemp referred to as relational understanding )Ball et al., 2008; Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992; Saderholm et al., 2010; Skemp, 1987). Concisely, conceptual knowledge or relational understanding refers to knowledge of underlying structures of mathematics, relationships and connections that give meaning to mathematical procedures )Eisenhart et al., 1993). As the aim of this study was to examine secondary mathematics teachers’ knowledge of arithmetic procedures on fractions through analysis of their instrumental understanding and relational understanding of fractions, Skemp’s theory was found to be the most appropriate. Research indicates the importance of these type of understanding in order to be able to teach the concepts for understanding )Ball, δubienski, & εewborn, 2001; Brown, Davis, & Kulum, 2011; Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003; Ojose, 2014; Shirvani, 2015). εaterials and εethods Research Design As the purpose of this study was to examine secondary mathematics teachers’ knowledge of arithmetic procedures on fractions, an “instrumental case study design” was the most appropriate. Instrumental case studies are used when the research wants to understand more than what is obvious to the observer, that is when the researcher wants to gain insight into a particular issue )Stake, 1995). Case study research encompasses the study of an issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system and explained bounded system as “separated out for research in terms 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 of time, place, or some physical boundaries” )Creswell, 2012, p. 465). In this study “bounded system” refers to the secondary mathematics teachers. Case study is an ideal methodology when a holistic, in-depth investigation is needed )Feagin, Orum, & Sjoberg cited in Taylor, 2005). Case studies have been widely used in various investigations, particularly in social sciences, and increasingly in instruction. One of the major advantages of using case studies is that case studies are designed to bring out the details from the viewpoint of the participants by using multiple sources of data )Berthelotte, 2007). Robust procedures has been developed and when these procedures are followed, the researcher will be following methods as well developed and tested as any in the scientific field )Stake, 1995; Yin, 2008). For the above reasons, and as this study aimed to examine secondary mathematics teachers’ knowledge of arithmetic procedures on fractions, which influences their instructional practices, a case study approach was seen most appropriate for this study. Research Instrument and its Validity Data collection instrument was developed. It was an assessment designed to test the participants’ understanding of the concepts of fractions. The assessment consisted of four questions. Question 1 was a multiple choice question in which the participants were required to identify the shape that is a quarter shaded. They were given three choices. This question was adapted from instrument used in the base line study conducted in the εaldives during 2012-2013 )UNICEF & NIE, 2014). Question 2 required the participants to shade the given shape to represent the given fraction. The purpose of the second question was to examine the participants’ relational understanding of fractions. In the National εathematics Curriculum it is stated that students studying in second grade are expected to recognize different equivalent fractions )National Institute of Education ]NIE[, 2014, p. 37). Therefore, it was seen important to include these questions to test whether the participants were able to recognize different equivalent fractions. Question 3 was designed to assess the participants’ instrumental understanding, which required them to perform certain arithmetic procedures on the given two questions involving fractions. Question 4 was an open ended question where they were asked to explain giving reasons how they arrived at the solution to the two questions given in Question 3. This question was designed to assess the participants’ relational understanding of arithmetic procedures on fractions. Content validity of the questionnaire was established by checking alignment of the assessment tasks against the learning outcomes of the National εathematics Curriculum. Construct validity was established by a mathematics teacher and a mathematics teacher educator. Questions were similar to the questions that were in the baseline study and also in the mathematics textbooks used in the εaldivian schools. However, there was no question in any of the textbooks used that was similar to Question 2, and Question 4 is typical type of question asked in mathematics pedagogy courses. Setting and Sample Participants of this study are final year in-service teachers enrolled in a secondary school mathematics teacher training program offered at one of the higher education institutions in the εaldives. Sampling strategy used in this study was homogeneous, purposive sampling as this study aimed to examine secondary mathematics teachers’ knowledge of arithmetic procedures on fractions. In homogenous sampling the researcher purposefully selects individuals based on common characteristics )Creswell, 2012). All final year in-service teachers enrolled in a secondary school mathematics teacher training program at the time of data collection were contacted 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 and briefed about the study. Thirty-two teachers consented to take part in the study. Data Collection and Analysis Participants who consented to take part in this study were informed three days ahead the date and time of the assessment. Participants were requested to complete the questionnaire at the same time under exam conditions to avoid any communication as the assessment involved mathematical calculations designed to examine participants’ instrumental and relational understanding. Participants were given a maximum of an hour to complete the assessment and use of calculators were not allowed. Participants were allowed to handover the assessments once they have completed the assessment. Assessment was followed by a brief interview which was a face-to-face individual interview that took place right after they completed and handed over the assessment. In the interview the participants were asked two questions: first to briefly explain their response to question 2 and second, to briefly explain the procedure they followed in solving the problems given in Question 3. The second interview question was similar to Question 4. The reason for asking individually the same question was to confirm the participants’ response to Question 4 and clarify any doubts. Responses to Questions 1-3 were analyzed for correct solutions whereas a content analysis was carried for the responses given to Question 4 and interview questions. According to εerriam )2009) all qualitative data analysis involves content analysis. Krippendorff )2003) stressed that content analysis is a scientific tool and defined content analysis as a “research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts )or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use” )p. 18). The process of content analysis involved coding of raw data and categorizing them according to characteristics of the content gathered. Results and Discussion Data collected through the assessment was used to carry out a detailed analysis of the participants’ knowledge of arithmetic procedures on fractions. The analysis consisted of a summary of each teacher’s performance that included scores on individual items, on concepts of fractions, and on instrumental and relational understanding. Data collected through interview was analyzed for themes and patterns to gain an insight into the relational understanding of the participants’ knowledge of arithmetic procedures on fractions. Participants were in-service teachers )N = 32) enrolled in a secondary school mathematics teacher training program in the εaldives. Two of the participants had less than two years of experience teaching mathematics. εathematics teaching experience of the majority of the participants )N = 17) was 2-5 years. Eight participants had a teaching experience between 6-10 years, whereas five participants has a teaching experience more than 10 years. Figure 1 summarizes the mathematics teaching experience of the participants. 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Figure 1. εathematics teaching experience of the participants Question 1 tested whether the participants were able to correctly identify the shape that is a quarter shaded. Interestingly, only 62.5% )N = 20) chose the correct option A. twelve of the participants incorrectly chose option B. None of the participants chose option C. this result is alarming as this clearly indicated there are 37.5% )N = 12) teachers teaching mathematics at the secondary level )grades 8, 9, & 10) who did not have the correct understanding of the concept fraction. Figure 2 shows the question 1. Figure 2. Question 1 Student performance of a similar question on baseline study showed that only 39% of the students in grade 4, 63% of the students in grade 7 and 65% of the students studying in grade 9 were correctly able to identify the figure which was a quarter shaded. Remarkably, secondary mathematics teachers’ performance on this question is at the same level as the grade 9 students’ performance of this question. Research shows that teachers who have a deep understating of the concepts foster better student performance as they are able to make use of better instructional practices than those who lack in-depth understanding of the concepts they teach )Ball et al., 2001; Brown et al., 2011; Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003; Ojose, 2014; Shirvani, 2015). None of the participants obtained the correct answer for question 2 which required the participants to shade a given fraction of the given shape. It is noteworthy 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 that none of the textbooks used in the εaldivian schools has a question similar to the question 2 of the assessment. Figure 3 shows question 2 of the assessment. Figure 3. Question 2 of the assessment. εajority of the participants crossed out the last row and shaded seven squares out of the remaining twelve squares. Analysis of the textbooks used in the εaldivian schools revealed that if students were required to shade a given fraction of a given figure, the figure was divided into the same number of equal parts as that of the 7 denominator of the given fraction. For example, if students were required to shade 12 then the given figure would be divided into 12 equal parts. However, the researcher believed that if students are expected to “recognize different equivalent fractions” )NIE, 2014, p. 37) at second grade, students studying in higher grades should be able to answer questions similar to question 2 of the assessment. Hence, this question was included to complement question 1 in confirming that teachers teaching secondary mathematics in fact had the relational understanding of fractions. From the interview it became clear that the teachers who participated in this study were unable to obtain the correct answer as they “have never come across a question like this” or “because there were more than 12 parts.” It is noteworthy that once the participants were shown how this question could be answered, typical comments received from them included “ah. Never thought of that. If you give a question like this again, I can answer.” This confirmed that irrespective of the length of their teaching experience, the participants’ relational understanding was limited. As the purpose of this study is not to examine the reasons for lack of relational understanding, this issue is not explored further in this study. Question number three included two questions that required participants to carry out arithmetic procedures of given fractions. Figure 4 shows the questions included in this. Figure 4. Question 3 of the assessment. Correct solutions to these questions were obtained by 96.9% )N = 31) of the participants. Only one participant was unable to work out the solutions. Interview with this participant revealed that the participant was “used to using calculator” that the participant “could not remember how to work out the solution without the use of a calculator.” One of interesting observations noted while analyzing the worked out 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 solutions of part )a) was that majority of participants )N = 25) who obtained the correct answer used the method shown in Sample Solution 1, whereas the remaining )N = 6) used the method shown in Sample Solution 2, which indicated they were following a certain procedure that they have mastered without thinking about the given problems in-depth. None of the participants considered the Alternative Solution shown. Sample Solution 1 a) = = = + × × + + Sample Solution 2 a) × × = + = = = = + + Alternative Solution a) × × = = + + Interestingly, when the participants were asked why they did not simplify the first fraction, as shown in the Alternative Solution, they said they never thought of it. Typical response received was that it never occurred to “make the denominators equal” by reducing the fraction as they “always multiplied and made denominators equal.” Interestingly, when the participants were asked why they did not simplify the first fraction, as shown in the Alternative Solution, they said they never thought of it. Typical response received was that it never occurred to “make the denominators equal” by reducing the fraction as they “always multiplied and made denominators equal.” Participants who obtained the correct solution to part )b) used a single approach, shown under Correct Solution and the only incorrect solution given is shown under Incorrect Solution below. In-depth examination of the solutions point out the possibility the participant memorized the steps in numerical procedures and tried to remember and apply the “invert and multiply” rule )Bradshaw et al., 2014). Correct Solution Incorrect Solution b) b) = = = ÷ × = = × = ÷ × × Analysis of worked solutions to part )a) and part )b) revealed that the participants had instrumental understanding of arithmetic procedures on fractions, whereas the responses to question 4 confirmed that the participants lacked relational understanding of the arithmetic procedures on fractions. Typical responses given to question 4 include: “That’s the rule.” “I just followed the rule.” “For )a) part we make the denominators equal because otherwise we can’t add. For )b) 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 we multiply by the opposite fraction ]reciprocal[.” “That’s how we were taught and that is how we teach.” “We remember and follow the rule and we tell students to follow the rule.” To sum up, results of this study demonstrated that the participants had instrumental understanding, whereas they lacked relational understanding. Teachers were able to work out correct solutions to the given problems but they were unable to obtain the correct solutions to problems that required them to demonstrate conceptual understanding. Worked examples and responses given to interview questions confirmed that the participants learned and followed the rules of mathematics mechanically, without having conceptual understanding of the rules )Golden & Shteingold, cited in Timmerman, 2014). Teachers who lack relational understanding cannot be expected to teach students for understanding as they would not be able to explain why their procedures worked )Timmerman, 2014). Conclusion and Recommendation Understanding fractions requires not only knowledge of procedures for solving arithmetic problems involving fractions, but also conceptual knowledge as well. Results of this study raised serious questions regarding teachers having sufficient knowledge of fractions to teach the topic. The most striking finding of this study was that teachers followed the rules mechanically without having sufficient relational understanding of the concepts. εoreover, teachers were unable to solve problems that they have never come across before )for example, question 2 of the assessment). This suggest that current mathematics teacher education programs need a reform. Teacher educators designing mathematics teacher education programs and professional development programs need to design programs that promote teachers’ ability to teach for understanding by including various activities that emphasized the underlying structures of arithmetic operations on fractions and that developed teachers’ relational understanding of the concepts. An assumption of this study is that these teachers would have the same experience and exposure to mathematics content and pedagogy as they were final year students enrolled in a secondary mathematics teacher education program at a higher education institution. A limitation of this study is that these findings cannot be generalized to the entire population. A delimitation of this study is that participants are trained from the same institution and belong to same nationality. As teachers need a solid understanding of the concepts they teach so that they can teach for understanding by giving reasons for following certain procedure, it is recommended that mathematics teacher training programs emphasized the importance of teaching for understanding )Olanoff, δo, & Tobias, 2014). It is also recommended that a study be carried out to assess the in-service teachers knowledge of fractions and based on the results a professional development program be developed to build on the strengths of the teachers and address the weaknesses of these teachers so that they are better equipped with the knowledge to teach mathematics for understanding. References Bailey, D. H., Hoard, ε. K., Nugent, δ., & Geary, D. C. )2012). Competence with fractions predicts gains in mathematics achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113, 447–455. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.06.004 Ball, D. δ., & εcDiarmid, G. W. )1990). The subject matter preparation of teachers. In W. R. 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United Nations Children’s Fund )UNICEF) & National Institute of Education )NIE). )2014). δongitudinal study on the impact of curriculum reforms 2012-2013. εaldives: UNICEF εaldives Country Office. Yin, R. K. )2008). Case study research: Design and methods )4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 CAPITAL BASE AND MICRO BUSINESS PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIA: A BOOTSTRAP REGRESSION APPROACH Sherifat Omolola Adesunkanmi Department of Management and Accounting, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria Olushina Olawale Awe Department of Mathematics (Statistics Unit), ObafemiAwolowo University, Nigeria Abstract This study examined the effect of capital base on the performance of micro businesses in Nigeria. This is with a view to reveal how intense the use of inadequate capital is affecting micro business performance. The study employed the use of primary data. It focused on cottage businesses which entail dyeing, weaving, mat making and carving, catering services, rental services, fabrications, artisan pottery and blacksmithing. Data collected through the administration of structured questionnaire to owners of sampled micro cottage business was analysed using bootstrap regression approach. The results showed that existing capital base of micro businesses has no significant effect on the performance of micro businesses with p value of 0.623 The study concluded from the findings that, micro businesses in Nigeria have too little capital- base and its effect is not significant. INTRODUCTION εicro business forms majority of the available businesses around the world and Nigeria is not an exemption. Probably due to lack of huge amount of money required to establish large scale businesses, some business owners with limited access to credit engage in small/micro businesses. Obviously, the importance of small/micro businesses cannot be underestimated as they are the lifeblood of most economies )Adesunkanmi, 2009). Small/micro businesses are described as efficiently prolific job creator, the seed of big business and the fuel of national economic engine )Quartey, 2010). Despite these contributions of micro business, δadder )1996) deduced that micro business major barrier to grow with regards to equity financing and debt is overwhelming, how they are financed is one of the most fundamental questions of business research, since financial capital is one of the necessary resources required for businesses to form and subsequently operate. The importance of the financing decision of business consequentially has important implications on the economy, given the role that business plays in employment growth, competition, innovation, and export potential. Additionally, credit decisions and the use of debt and equity have been shown to have important implications for the operations of the business, risk of failure, firm performance, and the potential of business expansion in the future. As businesses cannot live without capital they need money to invest in plant, inventories, machinery and other assets. Brealey et al. )2008) explain that the sources of capital are classified into long-term financing and short – term financing. One important question that this raises is that; is it that small businesses are not interested in sourcing for funds from banks or they are not aware of the available 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 funds, or some other reasons like conditions put in place by the government for business owners to source for such funds cannot be met by small businesses? εany studies like Oyefuga )2008), Adesunkanmi )2010, 2011, 2013), εogboyin )2014) has been able to established that time had gone pass all the stated reasons from their findings. However, from the work of εogboyin )2014) that showcased the conditionality of the available funds for SεEs to access them and the categories of the SεEs that can benefit from the Government Intervention Funds make these researcher to be curious as to whether the existing conditions are really the problem for micro businesses i.e. may be government did not consider the needs of the micro business for their assessment of the available funds. Also, )Adesunkanmi, 2013) established that inadequate accessibility of funds from banks was not as a result of banks consolidation but could be other reasons that need further clarification or research. This could include but not limited to inability of micro businesses not exploring other sources of finance apart from bank credit or not being able to put up a very convincing proposal to the creditors to evident the need for the credit in order to enhance their business growth. All these are issues that can serve as hindrances to micro business in getting the available credit. Financial needs of the businesses should be identified by the business owners and recognised by the credit provider in order to promote business performance. Available literature deduced that there are number of sources of credit for business, with the aforementioned problems of accessing bank credit, it is high time to start looking at the performance of micro businesses with their conditionality’s. εajority of the micro businesses lack access to bank credit due to their peculiarities. With all these arguments and analyses put up as regards the various sources of credit available to micro business owners, and peculiarities of micro business credit needs as compared with that of medium and big businesses, and, considering the effect all these irregularities on business performance, this study is set out to investigate the peculiarity of small capital base for micro businesses and examine its contribution to micro business performance. δITERATURE REVIEW The Nigerian εinistry of Industry )2001) observed that the review of the classification of SεEs was long overdue and adopted the following as the new classification of SεEs. εicro/Cottage Industry: An industry with a total capital employed of at least 1.5 million, including working capital but excluding cost of land, or a labour size between 1 and 10 employees. Small Scale Industry: An industry with a total capital employed of not more than 50 million including working capital but excluding cost of land, or a labour size between 11 and 100 employees. With these classifications, a εicro business has considerable advantage over large firms in their ability to respond quickly and effectively to economic changes and or trends. They have shorter development times )when properly managed) and their wide geographical dispersal gives them better proximity to customers as such they are regarded as the driving force of economic growth, job creation, and poverty reduction in the rural and urban areas of developing countries. They have been the means through which accelerated economic growth and rapid industrialization have been achieved )Harris and Gibson, 2006; Saucer 2005; Arinaitwe, 2002; Van Eeden, Vivers and Venter, 2004). εeanwhile, because of the contributions of micro business to economic development as generally acknowledged, entrepreneurs face many obstacles that limit their long 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 term survival and growth. Research on micro businesses development has shown that the rate of failure in developing countries is higher than in the developed countries )Arinaitwe, 2002). Scholars have indicated that starting a business is a risky venture and warn that the chances of micro business owners making it past the five year mark are very slim. They need to develop both short term and long term strategies to safeguard against failures )Sauser, 2005; εonk, 2000). Empirical evidence shows that in Nigeria, the level of external finance for the SεEs bank loan and equity is very low, particularly for micro business De Ferranti & Ody )2007). Drawing from a Survey of SεEs conducted by World Bank between 2006 and 2007 and using four developing countries, namely Nigeria, Brazil, India and South Africa as example, it is evident that Nigerian SεEs are starved of funds. Findings revealed that 2.87 percent of Nigerian Small businesses have line of credit, in South Africa 22.9 percent of Small businesses have line of credit and 42.79 percent of Small businesses have line of credit in Brazil. An examination of micro businesses does not reflect a different picture. For instance, only 6.01 percent of Nigerian micro businesses have line of credit as opposed to 35 percent and 67.5 percent of the micro businesses in South Africa and Brazil respectively )εaruth, 2012). Another good example is that banks finance only 1.07 percent of investment of small business in Nigeria but bank finance of small business investment are 17.05 percent, 15.09 percent and 19.9 in South Africa, Brazil and India respectively. The situation is not different for micro business because while bank finance only 1.57 percent of investment of micro businesses, bank finance of investment is 30.14 percent, 32.72 percent, 32.73 percent and 32.18 percent in South Africa., Brazil and India respectively )εaruth, 2011). An examination of the percentage of micro business that identify finance as major constraint shows that while 59.34 percent of micro businesses in Nigeria identify finance as a major constraint, the percentage of the micro businesses that identify finance as major constraint are 20.9 percent, 50.62 percent and 17.09 percent in South Africa, Brazil and India respectively. For medium businesses the percentage of businesses that identify finance as major challenge are 34 percent, 12.48 percent, 55.69 percent and 13.51 percent in Nigeria, South Africa, Brazil, and India respectively.)Robinson,2003) One important problem that micro businesses often face is access to capital )δader, 1996). δack of adequate financial resources places significant constraints on their development. Cook and Nixson )2000) observe that, notwithstanding the recognition of the role of micro business in the development process in many developing countries, micro business development is always constrained by the limited availability of financial resources to meet a variety of operational and investment needs. A World Bank study found that about 90% of small business surveyed stated that credit was a major constraint to new investment )Parker, 1995). δevy )1993) also found that there is limited access to financial resources available to smaller enterprises compared to larger organisations and the consequences for their growth and development. The role of finance has been viewed as a critical element for the development of small businesses )Cook & Nixson, 2000). A large portion of the small business sector does not have access to adequate and appropriate forms of credit and equity, or indeed to financial services more generally )Parker, 1995). In competing for the corporate market, formal financial institutions have structured their products to serve the needs of large corporate. 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Hong Yuh Ching )2011) tried to find out the relationship between the working capital management and corporate profitability, for this they divided the sample companies into two group working capital intensive and fixed capital intensive. After using different tests and applying ratios Return on Assets )ROA), Return on Investment )ROI), Return on Equity )ROE), inventory days etc. They concluded that regardless the two companies managing working capital are important equally. Tryfonidis and δazaridis )2006) worked to find out the relationship between corporate profitability and working capital management. They took 131 companies data from 2001-2004. They used cash conversion cycle )CCC) for the measurement of working capital management; their results indicate that there is a significance relationship between the two. An effective management can increase profits by maintaining their each conversion cycle efficiently and also keeping different ingredients )receivables, inventory etc) to a certain level. Dong )2010), reported that the organisation profitability and liquidity are affected by working capital management in his analysis. Pooled data are selected for carrying out the research for the era of 2006-2008 for assessing the companies listed in the stock market of Vietnam. He focused on the variables that include profitability, cash conversion cycle and its related elements and the relationship that exist between them. From his research it was found that the relationship among this variable were strongly negative. This denote that decrease in the profitability occur due to increase in each conversion cycle. It is also found that if the number of days of account receive and inventories are diminish then the profitability will increase numbers of days of accounts receivable and inventories. εark Deloof )2003), test to show the relationship between working capital and corporate profitability. He took a sample of 1009 Belgium firms for the period 19921996, and taking number of days, account receivable, inventory, account payable, cash conversion cycle as independent variables Gross operating income was used as dependent variable. Applying correlation and coefficient regression tests, Deloof manifested convincing negative relationship between gross operating profits and days in payable, days in inventory, and days in receivables. Based on his findings it is suggested that firm’s profitability can be maximising if days payable and days receivable is shortened. Hong Yuh Ching )2011) tried to find out the relationship between the working capital management and corporate profitability, for this they divided the sample companies into two group working capital intensive and fixed capital intensive. After using different tests and applying ratios Return on Assets )ROA), Return on Investment )ROI), Return on Equity )ROE), inventory days etc. They concluded that regardless the two companies managing working capital are important equally. Tryfonidis and δazaridis )2006) worked to find out the relationship between corporate profitability and working capital management. They took 131 companies data from 2001-2004. They used cash conversion cycle )CCC) for the measurement of working capital management; their results indicate that there is a significance relationship between the two. An effective management can increase profits by maintaining their cash conversion cycle efficiently and also keeping different ingredients )receivables, inventory etc) to a certain level. Dong )2010), reported that the organisation profitability and liquidity are affected by working capital management in his analysis. Pooled data are selected for carrying out the research for the era of 2006-2008 for assessing the companies listed in the stock market of Vietnam. He focused on the variables that include profitability, cash conversion cycle and its related elements and the relationship that exist between them. 1 4 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 From his research it was found that the relationship among this variable were strongly negative. This denote that decrease in the profitability occur due to increase in each conversion cycle. It is also found that if the number of days of account receive and inventories are diminish then the profitability will increase numbers of days of accounts receivable and inventories. εark Deloof )2003), test to show the relationship between working capital and corporate profitability. He took a sample of 1009 Belgium firms for the period 19921996, and taking number of days, account receivable, inventory, account payable, cash conversion cycle as independent variables Gross operating income was used as dependent variable. Applying correlation and coefficient regression tests, Deloof manifested convincing negative relationship between gross operating profits and days in payable, days in inventory, and days in receivables. Based on his findings it is suggested that firm’s profitability can be maximising if days payable and days receivable is shortened. Working capital is available for conducting the day-to-day operation of an organisation represented by its net current asset. Every business needs adequate liquid resources to maintain daily cash flow. It needs enough to pay wages, salaries and creditors if it is to keep its work force and ensure its supplies. εaintain adequate working capital is not just important in the short term. Adequate liquidity is needed to ensure the survival of the business in the long run. Even, a profitable company may fail without adequate cash flow to meet its liabilities. Therefore, the managers have the responsibility to manage the levels of working capital in the best interest of the stakeholders )Adeniyi 2008). 3.1 DATA AND εETHODOδODY Data for this study was collected through a structured questionnaire consisting of closed and open-ended questions designed in line with the objective of the study. The questionnaire was administered to 71 respondents and the data was bootstrap to enhance the sampling results. The questions contained in the questionnaire relates to effect of capital base on micro business performance in the study area 3.2 εodel Specification and εethodology 3.2.1 Regression εodel for the Data The effect of capital base on performance ofmicro business was analysed with the following regression model C = α + β1 TC + β2 A + β3 S + β4 NOB + ………………….. )1) Where C = Capital base of the micro business α = intercept β = slope parameter TC = Trade Credit A = Age of business S = Size of business NOB = Number of Branches = Stochastic error term of the model The multiple regression model specified can also be written in matrix form as Y = Xβ + …………………… )2) Where Y is an nxi vector of observations of the response variable. X is an nxp matrix of explanatory variable. β is a pxi vector of unknown regression coefficients and is an nxi vector of random errors. It is assume that elements of are independent and identically distributed and 2 > 0 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 is constant. For the estimation of β by Ordinary δeast Squares )OδS), it is required that the data be totally free from others which is not always so, hence we adopt a nonparametric bootstrap regression method in order to mitigate this notable constraint. 3.2.2 Nonparametric Bootstrap Regression εethod The bootstrap method employed in this work approximates the sampling distribution by simulating from the regression model specified and treating the simulated data ust like the real data. Therefore, we simulated by re-sampling )bootstrapping) as follows: Randomly choose samples of size n by sampling new )Y, X) from the original data Within each bootstrap sample, regress Y on X variables Use the obtained results for analyses and recommended. εeasurement of variables There are four key variables that entered the model specification. Though many other variables involving socio-demographic characteristics of respondents was also analyzed descriptively but did not appear here as the focus are those variables whose measurement requires classification. Those variables are discussed below. εicro Business performance: The micro business performance was captured by age of the business, size of the business, number of branches and is measured by the quantity of trade credit they are able to assess in money term, how long they have been in business, increase in the number of employee and number of branches of the businesses respectively. However, because information on these variables are not readily available for all the micro business in any published documents, it was included as part of items in the structured questionnaire that was used to elicit information from micro businesses visited. Increase in number of employees: this is measured by subtracting the number of employee before from the number of employees now for the micro businesses. Increase in capital base: capital is designed in range. This is because the business owners/managers cannot categorically give their business capital worth. So therefore it was ranged into five groups, the lower and the upper limit is added together and divided by 2. Number of branches: provided by the respondents Trade Credit: It is designed in range. The lower and upper limit is added together and divided by 2 to get the mid value. Discussion and Interpretation of Results It is expected that when micro business or any other size of business has adequate working capital to incur raw materials and machines/human capital for production, it will increase production, promote quality in goods produce, increase in sales, increase profit made, increase savings which can be ploughed back into the business, which increases investment. When a business achieves this then, it relatively increases the business capital base. Peculiar to micro business is that they lack cash to serve as their working capital. What operate within the micro business sector is that they service their production with trade credit. They achieve this through networking and maintaining creditable relationship with suppliers of raw materials required for production within their sector. This is so because majority of the micro business owners/managers have no access to loans from banks to run their businesses. The reason)s) for their inability to secure loans from banks is not far fetch from their behavior to capital issue during the course of this study. Generally majority of the business visited lack information on their business, no proper documentation of 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 the activities that make up their businesses. They are totally informal probably because of their micro size. Almost all the businesses addressed did not have exact amount of their seed capital, not only that, they don’t equally take full stock of their businesses to know their worth of present capital base. Aforementioned reason was why this researcher had to range the present capital base of the businesses in the questionnaire. It was discovered during the first run of the questionnaire that the few business owners visited did not have exact figures of the worth of their business but only have an idea of what it is likely to be. This could be because of their informality and it seems to have taken them away from the financial policy to dictate the running of their business. Inability of majority of the business owners/managers to calculate and document their profit per day/week and even monthly does not enable anyone to be able to determine if truly they are making profit and if they are, at what rate are they making it. This made it difficult to determine if the micro businesses visited have savings from the profit made. And so therefore we cannot really say categorically exact amount of capital. Even though some business owners take the daily contribution they make to be their savings. The claim is base on the fact that the contribution )Ajo) is deducted from the business on a daily basis. The amount contributed on daily basis ranged from ₦500 to ₦1,500. So at the end of the month their savings ranged from ₦15,000 to ₦45,000. The amount of savings per month is relatively small. εajority of them admitted not to use the total savings as plough back. They take care of some pressing responsibilities such as paying children school fees, buy school books and other responsibilities that may be required on their children. Some even said at times the whole savings are not even enough to service these responsibilities. Of interest to some of the business owners especially those in cottage business is that quantity of goods in their shops increases with time. They see this to be growth in business. But the truth of the matter is that the increase in the quantity of the goods in the shop was not as a result of growth in business. It is because they get those goods/raw materials on suppliers as trade credit. The capital on the goods is paid back after sales with little profit which is save as Ajo to be taken back at the end of the month to take care of their immediate personal responsibilities. So, trade credit does not relatively increase micro business capital base which has been define to represent business performance in this study. What trade credit seems to micro business is that it helps in the running of the business. Conclusion The overall goal of this study was to contribute knowledge to the discussion on the accessibility of trade credit and the micro business performance in Nigeria. The effect of capital base on the performance of micro business is not significant. The assumption is that when micro businesses gets supply of trade credit in form of raw materials and machines or goods for sale, it boots their production rate and sales and when this happens increase in sales should increase profits and then savings which should bring about increase in capital base to aid expansion of the business which will require more employees. But the assumptions did not hold in this study because low capital base has limit the business owners to rely on trade credit since the nature / peculiarities of micro business debarred them from getting loans from financial institutions. Trade credit only keeps the business running but those not necessarily increase performance. Table 4.13 THE EFFECTS OF INCREASE 1 IN CAPITAδ ON THE Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 PERFORεANCE OF εICRO BUSINESSES. Estimate Coefficients Standard Error Intercept 3.711e +05 6.010e+05 AOB 1.001e+04 4.012e+05 SIZE 6.466e+03 1.482e+05 NOB 4.021e+05 3.374e+05 CB 7.110e-01 1.440e+00 t value 0.617 0.249 0.044 1.192 0.494 p value 0.539 0.804 0.965 0.237 0.623 εultiple R – squared: 0.02655 Adjusted R – squared: -0.01925 F- statistics: 0.5797 on 4 and 85 DF, p-value:0.6782 Dependent Variable = Capital base )CB) HYPOTHESIS: Ho – Capital base has significant effect on micro business performance Hi – Capital base has no significant effect on micro business performance DECISION: Reject Ho if p-value ˂ 0.05. Otherwise do not reject Ho. Adesunkanmi )2012): ”The impact of εicro financing on the survival and growth of Sole proprietorship business in Ife Central δocal Government area of Osun State”. Department of εanagement and Accounting, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife. Nigeria. July 10-13, 2012/OAU/Nigeria. Adesunkanmi )2013): )2013). “Bank consolidation and Small Business δending in Nigeria” Unpublished ε.Phil thesis of the Department of εanagement and Accounting, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Osun State. Brealey RA, εyers SC & Allen F, 2008.Principles of corporate finance, 9t edition. New York: εcGraw Hill. Cook, P. )2001). Finance and Small and εedium-Sized Enterprise in Developing Countries. Journal of Development Entrepreneurship, 6)1), 17. δader, P. )1996).The public/private partnership, Springs Spring, 35)2), pp. 41-44. δiedholm, C, and εead, C. D )1999).Small Enterprises and EconomicDevelopment, The Dynamics of micro and small enterprises, Rutledge Studies in Development Economics, New York εark Paetkou )2003), “ εicro and small enterprises development and poverty alleviation in Thailand”, Projject IδO/UNIDP; THAI/99/003. εogboyin, S.O. )2014), “The Effect of Bank Consolidation Programme on δending Performance in the Nigerian Banking System, 2000-2007, Ph.D. Thesis. Oyefüga, I.O.; Siyanbola; W.O; Afolabi, 0.0; Dada, A.D and Egbetokun, A.A. )2008), “SεEs Funding: An assessment of an intervention Scheme in Nigeria”, World Review of Entrepreneurship, εanagement and Sustainable Development, Volume 4. No. 2/3, pp 233-245. Quartey, P. )2003). Financing Small and εedium Enterprises )SεEs) in Ghana. Journal of African Business, 4)1), 37-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300//j156v04n01-03 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The Legal System of the Saudi Judiciary and the Possible Effects on Reinforcement and Enforcement of Commercial Arbitration Ahmed A. Altawyan a Law Lecturer at Al-Iman Muhnammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Saudi Arabia Abstract The modernization of the Saudi arbitration environment is more in line with modern international norms of commercial arbitration rules, embodying several "arbitrationfriendly" principles of the UNCITRAδ εodel δaw, such as competence-competence and the autonomy of the arbitrating parties. However, the new Saudi arbitration environment is still subject to certain intricacies and obstacles presented by the Saudi municipal courts during the process of arbitration and often in the challenge and enforcement stage of an arbitral award in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Thus, addressing such challenges posed by the Saudi courts and finding solutions through analyzing and examining the Saudi courts system will help to pave the way toward creating a more welcoming arbitration environment locally and internationally and a viable choice for parties who will otherwise encounter an unwelcome environment in the Kingdom. Keywords Saudi judiciary system; Saudi court; Saudi arbitration law; Islamic sharia 1 The Importance of a National Judiciary in the Arbitration Process It is well known that investors prefer the method of arbitration to settle merchant disputes both in international and national fields.56 Commercial arbitration has become more attractive because of its privacy, party control of the process and the international recognition and enforcement of its awards.57 Hence, arbitration offers the opportunity to settle disputes between parties by using a private method that is binding and enforceable in general. Consequently, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia realized that it should establish a new arbitration law that fits the international community to attract foreign companies to invest in the Kingdom rather than its old law, which did not meet the real legal and investment needs.58 Accordingly, on April 16, 2012, Saudi Arabia issued a new arbitration law, which was inspired by the UNCITRAδ εodel δaw.59 This law offers greater independence in the arbitral process, which provides enhanced procedural powers of the arbitral tribunal and 56 See Association, AAA Handbook on International Arbitration and ADR (American Arbitration Association, 2010), 169-172. 57 Ibid. 58 See Abdulrahman Mamdoh Saleem, A Critical Study on How the Saudi Arbitration Code Could Be Improved and on Overcoming the Issues of Enforcing Foreign Awards in the Country as a Signatory State to the New York Convention, Available at SSRN 2315728 (2012); Saudi Arbitration Law Article 25, 38, 55 (2012); Nancy B Turck, "Arbitration in Saudi Arabia", Arbitration International 6(3) (1990): 281- 291. 59 R. Mithani,’Saudi Arabia: The emerging arbitration landscape’, Corporate Disputes Magazine (JanMar 2014): 2-5. 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 clearer enforcement of arbitration agreements and awards. Although the new arbitration law substantially limits the previous mandatory oversight of the local Saudi courts, parties still need to deal with Saudi courts at different stages during the arbitration process.60 Under the new law, the disputing parties will need Saudi courts during the arbitration process similar to the practice in the other jurisdictions. For instance, the parties will be called to address issues like the appointment of arbitrators when they cannot agree or if a party needs temporary or injunction relief.61 In this regard, most judges in Saudi courts are trained only in Islamic Sharia, and they usually lack any particular technical or commercial background.62 In addition, most rules applied in Saudi courts can be found in books that were written by medieval εuslim jurists.63 For this reason, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia solved the lack of background in technical and commercial legal matters by establishing specialized tribunals in different fields consisting of specialists to settle disputes involving their specialties.64 The new Enforcement δaw, which was issued through Royal Decree No. ε/53 on July 3, 2012, represents a significant step toward aligning the law in the Kingdom with international standards and a facilitation of enforcement of arbitral awards with the creation of a particular jurisdiction and specific procedures applicable to such enforcement. However, the recognition and enforcement the arbitral awards will determined by Saudi courts even though they have the reputation of being highly skeptical toward the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards.65 This skepticism is thought to exist in all cases involving investors, foreign and national, as the result of which investors try to avoid Saudi courts.66 In fact, the new law does not provide clear guidance about public policy as applied in the Kingdom or the meaning of Islamic Sharia concept as applied in the courts especially since there are different schools and opinions about many issues. For instance, granting interest, which is 60 Ibid. Saudi Arbitration Law Article 22 (2012). 62 Although there are law schools and Sharia schools in Saudi Arabia, the law of the Saudi judiciary requires that each candidate have a degree from one of the Sharia colleges in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. However, the graduates from the Saudi law schools can hold any legal position except being a judge as will be shown later in this paper. See David J Karl, 'Islamic Law in Saudi Arabia: What Foreign Attorney's Should Know, 25 Geo. Wash. J. Int'l L. & Econ (1991): 144-145;Nancy B Turck, "Dispute Resolution in Saudi Arabia", The International Lawyer, 22 (1988): 418 63 See Frank E Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia (Leiden: Brill, 2000), p. 9. 64 Several tribunals, referred to as “committees”, have been created periodically with judicial powers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. These committees deal with specific issues regulated by royal decrees, such as labor and commercial law. The jurisdiction of each committee is determined separately by the decree that created it. One of them was created to resolve banking disputes; it is called "the Banking Disputes Settlement Committee." See Abdulrahman Yahya Baamir, Shari’a Law in Commercial and Banking Arbitration: Law and Practice in Saudi Arabia. (2013): 22-24. 65 See F. Nesheiwat & A. Al-Khasawneh, "The 2012 Saudi Arbitration Law: A Comparative Examination of the Law and Its Effect on Arbitration in Saudi Arabia", 13 Santa Clara Journal of International Law, (2015): 445-446. Also, K. Roy, "New York Convention and Saudi Arabia: Can a Country Use the Public Policy Defense to Refuse Enforcement of Non-Domestic Arbitral Awards", The, 18 Fordham Int'l LJ, (1994): 920-958. 66 Some cases show that foreign investors and Saudis alike try to avoid enforcing arbitral awards in Saudi Arabia by using some available tactics that help them to avoid Saudi courts, such as in the case of Islamic Investment Company of the Gulf (Bahamas) Ltd v. Symphony Gems NV and others. For more information about this case and subject matter, see Baamir, Shari’a Law in Commercial and Banking Arbitration: Law and Practice in Saudi Arabia. (2013): 173-175. 61 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 prohibited under Sharia according to most εuslim jurists, may void an award at the enforcement stage in a Saudi court. In such cases, if it is impossible to sever that part of the award that does not comply with public policy, such as interest in this example, from the rest of the award, the enforcement court may order that the entire issue of damages be reheard. In the alternative, it may choose to enforce the award other than the provision for interest.67 No foreign party needs to understand the Saudi judicial system only for its arbitration procedures; however, a foreigner might be forced to defend a case in a Saudi court if sued by a Saudi plaintiff. Appearance in a Saudi court may also be required by the terms of an agreement, if one of the parties, having more bargaining power, imposes exclusive choice of a Saudi court. According to Fabio Bortolotti: “The party in question wants to make sure that possible disputes will be decided under a wellknown procedural system, by judges who use the same language, with the assistance of lawyers with whom the judge is familiar.”68 Hence, the study will consider extensively the Saudi judicial system to give foreign investors a clear picture of Saudi courts. This will also help legal researchers and policymakers in Saudi Arabia to improve the judicial system, because national courts can exist without arbitration, even though arbitration cannot exist without the courts. 2 Background Islamic Sharia, the primary source of legislation in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia according to its basic law,69 was developed during Islamic history gradually by εuslim jurists and scholars and was accepted as the basis of law in most of the εuslim world during the Islamic history and until now in the some εuslim countries.70 One of the significant areas in the εuslim world is the Arabian Peninsula, most of which is part of Saudi Arabia. Over the years, various parts of the Arabian Peninsula have been subject to various types of governments, which reflected the judicial styles and formats from one region of its area to another.71 By examining the reality of the Arabian Peninsula, the study found that some of its parts, like Hejaz, possessed the administrative structure established by the Ottoman Empire and was sophisticated in its outlook both through its permanent contact with foreign εuslims partaking in the annual Haj72 to εakkah City and through its long-standing position on the trade route between Asia and Europe, so that the Hejaz judiciary had a measure of procedural sophistication.73 In other parts, such as Najd, the form of its judiciary was affected by the tribal system and was shaped by customs and traditions without regard to form and procedure, because many tribes and clans in the Arabian Peninsula 67 See The Saudi Arbitration Law Article 55. 2012. F. Bortolotti, Drafting and negotiating international commercial contracts: a practical guide 95 (International Chamber of Commerce. 2013). 69 The Basic Law of Government Article 1. 1992. 70 See Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. (2000): 4-32. 71 See J.M. Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present (Leiden University Press. 2010): 144-145. Also, Hanson, Arab Law Quarterly, (1987): 281-285. 72 Haj (pilgrimage) is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims, and it is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca. Every adult, who is financially and physically capable of undertaking this duty, must carry it out in the Islamic religion at least once in the adult’s lifetime. See Francis E Peters, The Hajj: The Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca and the holy places (Princeton University Press. 1994). 73 See Hanson, Arab Law Quarterly, 283 (1987). 68 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 live according to the pattern of the desert and its customs, traditions and customs inherited among themselves.74 As a result, in 1927, after King Abdul-Aziz established the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, different court systems existed. Najd had a simple system. The ruler appointed single judges to the major towns, and usually judges were involved in cases that the local governor, called the Amir, could not resolve a conflict amicably. The local governor would then refer such cases to judges for adjudication according to Islamic Sharia. The judgments rendered by the judges were then submitted to the governor to enforce. εoreover, appeals were possible only through a complaint to the local governor, who would often refer the matter to the senior scholars.75 The King established a framework for the courts of the Hejaz, which was a more elaborate judicial organization. This structure contains multiple-judge courts, summary and general Sharia courts, and instances of appeal. Because the Najdi judges were not familiar with this judicial organization, this system remained only for the Hejaz area until 1960, when it was implemented in the other areas of the Kingdom.76 Beginning in the 1930s, the new kingdom needed to regulate its affairs nationally and with other states by enacting laws. However, the senior scholars opposed the new legislation, and the Sharia judges refused to apply it, because they were man-made as they saw it.77 According to Frank Vogel: " the ‘ulama’ - senior scholars- were unlikely to develop needs rules by Ijtihad,78 and the ‘ulama’ rarely supported rapid modernization anyway. A famous story tells of ‘ulama’ opposition to introducing radio: Abdu al-Aziz was able to overcome their opposition only by having the Quran transmitted to him in their hearing thus proving that the invention was not satanic."79 As a result, the Kingdom was forced to establish specialized tribunals in specific legal areas to adjudicate matters, and they were under the supervision of a particular ministry with jurisdiction over the tribunal’s field. These tribunals included the Tariffs Committee in 1953, the Committee for Commercial Paper Disputes in 1963, and the Committee for the Settlement of δabor Disputes in 1969.80 In 1955, a significant step was taken to establish a new judicial institution, which was an administrative court called the Board of Grievances. The Board's duty was to hear and investigate complaints against government officials or governmental agencies filed by Saudi citizens.81 This institution reported directly to and advised the King 74 See Albert Hourani, A history of the Arab peoples: Updated edition (Faber & Faber. 2013): 113. See F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. (2000): 87-89. Also, Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present.(2010): 144-145. 76 See F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. (2000): 87-91. Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present 144-145. 2010. Also Hanson, Arab Law Quarterly, (1987): 283-284. 77 See Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present. (2010): 146. Also, Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia, (2000): 286. 78 Ijtihad means obtaining the rules from the primary sources of Islamic Sharia by using the secondary sources, and the practice of ijtihad extends to emerging issues depending on one or more of the secondary sources. This tool will be explained as applied in the Saudi court later in this study. 79 F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia, (2000): 286. 80 See Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present.( 2010): 146. 81 The administrative judiciary in Saudi Arabia passed through several stages. See the administrative judicial website at: www.bog.gov.sa/AboutUs/Pages/Engender.aspx. 75 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 about each such case, because he decided how each case was resolved.82 in 1960, the Hejaz and Najd systems were united under the new Presidency of the Judiciary located in Riyadh after some improvements in the Hejaz judicial system, which were applied to all areas of the Kingdom. Furthermore, the “Presidency of the Judiciary” remained responsible for different religious and legal issues. For example, this institution was in charge of the issuance of fatwas, supervision of religious education, and the appointment of candidates in significant religious positions until 1975 as will be shown later.83 Between 1970 and 1975, there were further modifications of the Saudi judicial system. The Supreme Judicial Council, the Council of Senior Saudi Scholars, and the εinistry of Justice were new institutions that assumed the tasks of the Presidency of the Judiciary. εoreover, the Judiciary Regulation granted the Sharia court in 1975 general jurisdiction to adjudicate all civil and criminal disputes except in the legal matters where the specialized tribunals were competent.84 The Supreme Judicial Council operated under the direct authority of the King and sat at the top of the judicial pyramid, below which were the appellate courts in Riyadh City and εecca City and smaller courts spread all over the Kingdom. The specialized tribunals were outside of the formal judicial system.85 They were under the scope of the executive branch. The Supreme Judicial Council was granted judicial, administrative, and regulatory authority.86 In 2007, the Kingdom applied a modern judicial system.87 The King of Saudi Arabia issued Royal Decree ε/78 to reform the judiciary and to create a new court system after the Saudi judicial system was criticized for being slow, arcane, lacking in the safeguards of justice and unable to deal with the modern world especially after the World Trade Organization approved of making the Kingdom a member after 12 years of talks.88 In practice, however, the reforms have yet to be implemented totally, and the judicial system is still in reorganization. The changes included the creation a Supreme Court, an appeal court for each province, and new specialist first-instance courts that comprise various types of general, criminal, personal status, commercial and labor courts.89 Furthermore, the new law transferred the Board of Grievances' commercial and criminal jurisdictions to a restructured general judicial system.90 As 82 See J.M.Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present (2010): 147-148.. 83 See F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. (2000): 91-93. Also, Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present 147-148. 2010. 84 See F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia.(2000): 92-93 85 The study will explain the legal position of such tribunals when it addresses the structure of the Saudi judiciary. 86 See Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present 148-149. 2010. 87 The Law of the Judiciary (2007). The law is available in the Minister of Justice website at: https://www.moj.gov.sa/ar . Also, see R. Clark, "The dispute resolution review ", Law Business Research.( 2013): 664. 88 See F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. (2000): 363-365. Also, Hossein Esmaeili, "On a Slow Boat towards the Rule of Law: The Nature of Law in the Saudi Arabia Legal System", 26 Ariz. J. Int'l & Comp. L., (2009: 32-34). Also, J.M. Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present.( 2010): 155. 89 The Saudi Law of the Judiciary Article 9, 15. 2007. 90 See Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve Muslim countries in past and present. (2010): 155. 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 a result, the Sharia courts will be more specified, and the workload of the government's mini-tribunals will be transferred to the new courts. The new judicial law provides a significant improvement over the old laws and applies a modern form under Islamic Sharia, which could be a big step to improving the legal environment in Saudi Arabia. According to Kenneth Dam: A sound judiciary is key to enforcement. No doubt some technical laws can be enforced by administrative means, but a rule of law, in the primary economic sense of protecting property and enforcing contracts, requires a judiciary to resolve disputes between private parties. And protection against the state itself is made easier where the judiciary can resolve a controversy raised by a private party against the state based on constitutional provisions or parliamentary legislation.91 Although such reforms seem a great step, the question remains how in practice such modernization will affect the legal environment in Saudi Arabia especially since the history of the Saudi judiciary showed that there was a radical rejection of or failure to embrace the new models in different stages since King Abdul-Aziz, the Kingdom establisher, which forced him and the kings thereafter to create a special tribunal out of the judicial system to resolve various cases in different aspects, which is what the study will address after presenting the structure of the new judicial law in more detail. 3 Structure of the Saudi judicial system As presented in the history of the Saudi judicial system, Saudi Arabia chose in 1955 to have a dual judicial system comprised of the Sharia Courts System and an administrative judiciary called the Board of Grievances, which continued until the new law was established.92 Hence, the study will show the structure of both systems in more detail. The Role of the Supreme Judicial Council The Supreme Judicial Council consists of the president and ten other members. The members of the council are the Chief of the High Court, four full-time members of the rank of Chief of the Appellate Court appointed by the King, the Deputy εinister of Justice, the Chief of the Bureau of Investigation and Prosecution, and three members who have the qualifications required to be the Appellate Judge and are appointed by the King. All members of the council serve for a period of four years, which is renewable for other periods except for the Chief of the High Court, the Saudi Deputy εinister of Justice, and the Chief of the Saudi Bureau of Investigation and Prosecution.93 Under the Saudi Judiciary δaw of 2007, the Supreme Judiciary Council does not have a duty to serve as the Kingdom's highest court, because the new law, unlike the old law, provides for a Saudi highest court.94 However, the Council continues to oversee administrative aspects of the judiciary, such as promotions, transfers, assignments, and training, and it monitors the proper discharge of their duties by established rules and procedures to ensure the independence of 91 K. Dam, The law-growth nexus: The rule of law and economic development (Brookings Institution Press. (2007): 93. 92 Clark, The dispute resolution review. (2013): 662. 93 The Law of the Judiciary Article 5. 2007. 94 Id. at, Article 6 and 11. 1 4 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 judges.95 3.1 The New Courts System The new law organized the courts by a new hierarchical structure as set out below in descending order:96 - High Court; - Courts of Appeals; and, - First-Degree Courts, which are comprised of: - General Courts; - Criminal Courts; - Personal Status Courts; - Commercial Courts; and, - δabor Court. - The High Court The new High Court has the previous Supreme Judicial Council's primary function as the highest authority in the judicial system. The High Court is seated in Riyadh City.97 This court is comprised of a president, who has the qualifications required by the Chief Appellate Judge, and is appointed by a Royal Order, along with an appropriate number of judges holding the rank of Chief of the Saudi Appellate Court, who is appointed by a Royal Order on the recommendation of the Supreme Judiciary Council.98 The Court exercises its duty through specialized circuits as needed, which consist of three-judge panels except the Criminal Circuit, which reviews judgments involving certain major punishments, such as the death sentence. The Criminal Circuit is composed of a five-judge panel. Chief Judges of the Saudi High Court Circuits are appointed by the Supreme Judicial Council on the recommendation of the Chief of the High Court.99 The High Court also supervises the implementation of Islamic Sharia and Saudi regulations, which are consistent with the matters that fall within the general jurisdiction of the judiciary.100 Furthermore, the Court reviews rulings issued by the Courts of Appeals in different cases. These include cases that involve crimes punishable by death and other certain major crimes;101 cases which issued or supported by the Courts of Appeals contains the challenge to the ruling that is contrary to the provisions of Islamic Sharia or laws issued by the Kingdom that do not conflict with Islamic Sharia; cases in which judgment was entered by a court that was not properly constituted as provided for by the Judiciary law and other rules; cases in which judgment was entered by an incompetent Court or Circuit Court; and finally cases that involve the failure to frame an incident or impropriety in its description of the case.102 - Courts of Appeals The Courts of Appeals hears appealable decisions and judgments from lower 95 Id. at, Article 6. Clark, The dispute resolution review.(2013): 664. 97 The Saudi Law of the Judiciary Article 10. 2007. 98 Ibid. 99 Ibid. 100 The Saudi Law of the Judiciary Article 11. 2007. 101 Ibid. at. Article 11 102 Ibid. 96 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 courts.103 The Court issues its decision after hearing the litigants' arguments under the code of criminal procedure and the code of procedure before Sharia Courts.104 The new Courts of Appeals consist of the following circuits: Civil Circuits, Circuits, Criminal Circuits, Personal Status, Commercial Circuits, and δabor Circuits.105 Each circuit court is composed of a president, who is appointed by the Chief of the Appellate Court, and judges who hold the rank of Appellate Judge. 106 These specialized circuit courts are comprised of three three-judge panels; however, the Criminal Circuit courts, which review matters involving certain major crimes, including those punishable by death, are comprised of five-judge panels.107 First Degree Courts According to the new law, the First-Degree Courts are in the Kingdom's provinces, counties, and districts as needed.108 There are different types of the first courts: General Courts, Criminal Courts, Commercial Courts, δabor Courts, and Personal Status Courts.109 The General Courts are established in provinces and consist of specialized circuits, including Implementation Circuits, Approval Circuits, and Traffic Cases Circuits.110 The law also THE gives the COURT Supreme Judicial Council authority to HIGH determine if these circuits are composed of one or three-judge panels.111 εoreover, the Criminal Court consists of the following specialized circuits: Qisas - Retaliatory Punishment - Cases Circuits, Hudud Cases Circuits -Prescribed Punishments, Ta'zir Discretionary Punishment- Cases Circuits, and Juvenile Cases Circuits. The Criminal Court will be composed of a three-judge panel except with regard to cases involving other offenses, which will be specified by the Supreme Judicial Council and which are heard by one judge.112 Other types of courts in Personal Status, Commercial, and δabor consist of specialized circuits as needed and are composed of one or more judges as specified by the Supreme Judicial Council.113 Structure of the New Courts System Chart COURTS OF APPEALS 103 The Law of the Judiciary Article 17. 2007. Ibid. at. Article 17 105 Ibid. at. Article 16 106 Ibid. at. Article 15 107 Ibid. at. Article 15 108 Ibid. at. Article 18 109 See id. at. Article 19-23 110 Ibid. at. Article 19 111 Ibid. 112 Ibid. at Article 20 113 Ibid. at Article 21 104 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Labor Circuits Commercial Circuits Criminal Circuits Personal Status Circuits Civil Circuits FIRST-DEGREE COURTS Labor Courts Commercial Courts Criminal Courts Personal Status Courts General Courts 3.2 Board of Grievances Reforms Royal Decree ε/78 brought about the overhaul of Saudi Arabia’s Board of Grievances, an independent administrative, judicial commission responsible directly to the King.114 The pyramidal structure of the new Board of Administrative Courts is parallel to the structure of the Judicial Courts.115 The Board of Grievances consists of a president of the rank of minister, at least, one vice-president, some assistant vice-presidents, and several judges.116 Vice presidents are appointed by Royal Order from among those who possess the qualifications required to become a Chief of the Appellate Court.117 The law stipulates that the Board of Grievances is based in the city of Riyadh.118 Furthermore, the new Board of Grievances δaw establishes an Administrative Judicial Council, which consists of the president of the new Board, the chief of the High Administrative Court, the most senior vice president of the Board, and four judges of the rank of chief of the Appellate Court appointed by Royal Orders.119 The Council performs a number of administrative tasks similar to those of the Supreme Judicial Council.120 The Administrative Judicial Council encompasses several committees, including the Jurisdictional Conflict Committee, the Judicial Disciplinary Committee, and the Department of Judicial Inspection.121 The Board of Grievances δaw organizes the Board according to the following hierarchical structure as presented in the chart below: - High Administrative Court; - Administrative Courts of Appeals; and, - Administrative Courts.122 114 The Saudi Law of the Board of Grievances Article 1 (2007). Ibid. at article 5 116 Ibid. at article 2 117 Ibid. at Article 3 118 Ibid. at Article 1 119 Ibid. at Article 4 120 Ibid. at Article 5 121 Ibid. at Article 15 122 Ibid. at Article 8 115 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 - High Administrative Court The new High Administrative Court is comprised of a president holding the rank of minister appointed by Royal Order and an adequate number of judges each having the rank of chief of the Appellate Court, and Royal Order appoints them on the recommendation of the Administrative Judicial Council.123 The High Court will exercise its jurisdictions through specialized circuits as needed, which are composed of three-judge panels.124 Furthermore, the High Administrative Court has the competence to review rulings issued or upheld by the Administrative Courts of Appeals if the objection to the judgment involves a violation of Islamic Sharia provisions or any regulations that do not contradict Sharia principals; faults in its implementation or interpretation; the entry of judgment from an incompetent court; the entry of judgment from a court not duly constituted as required by the Board of Grievances δaw; fault in framing the incident or impropriety in its description; entry of a judgment contrary to another previous decision issued between the parties to the proceedings; or a jurisdictional conflict among the Board's courts.125 - Administrative Courts of Appeals The new law also establishes Administrative Courts of Appeals.126 These courts hear appealable decisions from the lower Administrative Courts through Specialized Circuits composed of three-judge panels.127 εoreover, they render their judgment after hearing the litigants' arguments according to stipulated law.128 Administrative Court The new law establishes Administrative Courts that function through specialized circuits, such as Administrative Circuits, Employment and Disciplinary Circuits, and Subsidiary Circuits.129 According to the law, the courts are composed of either a one or a three-judge panel.130 The Administrative Courts have jurisdiction to review the cases as following: )A) Cases related to the rights provided for in the Civil and εilitary Service and Pension δaws for government employees and independent public entities and their heirs and claimants; )B) Cases of objection filed by parties concerned by administrative decisions, where the reason for such an objection is a lack of jurisdiction, a deficiency in form, a violation or erroneous application and interpretation of laws and regulations, or abuse of authority. The rejection or refusal of an administrative authority to make a decision that it was required to make according to laws and regulations is considered to be an administrative decision; )C) Cases of compensation filed by parties concerned against the government and independent public corporate entities resulting from their actions; )D) Cases filed by parties regarding contract-related disputes in which the government or an independent public corporate entity is a party; )E) Disciplinary cases filed by the Bureau of Control and Investigation; 123 Law of the Board of Grievances Article 10. 2007. Ibid. at. Article 9. 125 Ibid. at. Article 11. 126 Ibid. at Article 8. 127 Ibid. at Article 12. 128 Ibid. at Article 12. 129 Law of the Board of Grievances article 8. 2007. 130 Ibid. at article 9. 124 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 )F) Other Administrative Disputes; and, )G) Requests for implementation of foreign judgments.131 Structure of the New Board of Grievances Chart HIGH ADMINISTRATIVE COURT ADMINISTRATIVE COURTS OF APPEALS Disciplinary Circuits Administrative Circuits Subsidiary Circuits Other Specialized Circuits ADMINISTRATIVE COURTS Disciplinary Circuits Subsidiary Circuits Administrative Circuits Other Specialized Circuits The new laws give the courts the authority to oversee all cases. For example, Commercial and δabor Courts will oversee disputes that had previously been handled by special committee tribunals at the εinistry of Commerce and Industry and the εinistry of δabor.132 According to Article 25 of the law of the judiciary: “Courts shall have jurisdiction in all cases according to the rules outlined in the legal proceedings system and the system of criminal proceedings.”133 The Implementing Regulations of the δaw of the Judiciary excluded three legal tribunals in three sectors, which are banks, the financial market, and customs sectors. Furthermore, in 2012, Royal Order No. )37441) was issued regarding the formation of the first circle of the Appellate Committee of disputes and banking irregularities.134 Hence, not just the committee will remain, but also more than five years after the issuance of the new judiciary law, the appellate of this committee was issued, which means that the ruler regulates it to be as independent court. So the question here is why these committees remained even though they were previously criticized for their decisions, which were not always enforceable, and they also were challenged in the Saudi courts.135 The tribunals always faced questions regarding the impartiality and independence of these 131 Ibid. at Article 13. See The Law of the Judiciary article 25. 2007. 133 Ibid. 134 The Saudi Royal Order No. (37441), 2012 135 I. Usa, Saudi Arabia Company Laws and Regulations Handbook (2008): 62. 132 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 tribunals )committees), especially because they were under an executive authority.136 The study needs to shed light on of such committees which is the Committee for the Settlement of Banking Disputes, the most important legal committee in Saudi Arabia for its special nature as will be shown later.. 3.3 The Committee for the Settlement of Banking Disputes The Committee for the Settlement of Banking Disputes has been operating under the supervision of the Saudi Arabian εonetary Agency for three decades.137 This tribunal "committee" has been in existence in the history of the Saudi judiciary as a critical element for banks that need to enforce judgments against defaulting customers in the Kingdom. The tribunal's jurisdiction over banking disputes and its application to the particular principles to disputes, such as giving effect to the transaction agreed between the parties and upholding recognized, international banking practices, allows banking claims in the Kingdom to be enforced in a way that would not be possible in the general court system of the Kingdom for two main reasons.138 The first reason is that Saudi judges do not have the training required to deal with these types of disputes. Nancy Turck says that “the judges are trained only in Sharia and often have no technical background to understand a complex, highly technical case.”139 Hence, the study will shed light on this matter later. The other cause for creating this committee is that the legal right of the bank to collect interest is unacceptable under Sharia as applied in the Saudi court. Abdurahman Bammir says about this issue: It should be noted that the committee was established as a compromise between Sharia and economic interest in order to remove the burden from judges who faced a religious dilemma when deciding on disputes related to banking business. The dilemma occurred because of the gap between the legal right of the bank to collect the amount of interest in full, as stipulated in the agreement between the parties following the principle of pacta sunt servanda, on the one hand, and the fact that the whole transaction is unacceptable under Sharia on the other.140 As a result, this committee is the only authority in the Kingdom that recognizes charging interest as a valid legal practice.141 Since the Banking Dispute Committee was created in 1987, there have been elements of ambiguity around the Committee’s procedural rules and the enforceability of the Committee’s decision. However, in practice, the Committee has always borne many of the characteristics of a court, and it is totally dependent on the other governmental bodies, such as the εinistry of the Interior for the enforcement of its judgments.142 In 2012, a new Royal Order No 37441 clarified the status of the Committee's powers 136 Ibid. The history of this committee is available at Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency website: http://www.sama.gov.sa/en-us/about/pages/samahistory.aspx. See also, Baamir, Shari’a Law in Commercial and Banking Arbitration: Law and Practice in Saudi Arabia. (2013): 179-184. 138 Ibid. at. 180-181. 139 Turck, The International Lawyer, (1988): 418. See also, Karl, Geo. Wash. J. Int'l L. & Econ., (1991): 144-145. F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. (2000): 8-32. 140 Baamir, Shari’a δaw in Commercial and Banking Arbitration: δaw and Practice in Saudi Arabia. (2013): 180. 141 See ibid. at. 149. 142 See ibid. at. 179-181. 137 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 and processes.143 According to the new royal order, the Committee was to establish Circuits as needed. Each circuit or committee would consist of three members and an additional alternate member to allow for rotating members. The members must have legal qualifications and experience and be familiar with banking transactions. εoreover, at least one of the members must be Islamic Sharia qualified, and all members are appointments for four years by Royal Order.144 Furthermore, the Committee shall hear disputes based on the information and evidence provided in the claim file and the agreements entered into between the disputing parties. The Committee’s decisions must be made by a majority, and there is a right to appeal within 30 days to the new appellate committee, the decision of which is non-appealable before any other authority.145 εoreover, a new appellate committee was created by Royal Order and consisted of a circle or more as needed. Each appellate committee consists of three members, at least one of whom must be Sharia qualified. This committee is competent to hear objections filed against decisions of the Commission for the Settlement of Banking Disputes as stipulated in the Royal Order. The appellate committee renders decisions by majority, and its decisions are not subject to appeal before any other authorities.146 Furthermore, a new limitation period was issued. Claims will not be heard by the committee that are filed more than five years after the due date of the claimed amount or from the date when the claimant becomes aware of the event that is the subject of the application, unless there is a justification that is acceptable to the Committee.147 Also, the Royal Order expressly gives the Committee the authority to freeze a debtor’s bank and investment accounts and entitlements at governmental authorities, restrict the debtor from dealing with national bodies and banks, and issue travel bans after its final judgment.148 In sum, the Royal Order makes it eminently clear that the Committee for the Settlement of Banking Disputes is truly a court, and it is to be expected according to the provisions of the Royal Order that its circuits will expand the capacity of the system across the country to cover the increase of banking disputes in the Kingdom. However, establishing committees that are under executive supervision out of judiciary authority affects their independence. εicheal δindsey says: εiddle Eastern countries are generally characterized by weak judiciaries, which are not independent from the executive branches of government. The judges in the region are often government employees working under the executive through the minister of justice. This gives the executive branch the power to interfere in the judicial process. Egypt and δebanon, for example, have highly developed judiciaries but are often under pressure from the executive branches of their governments.149 No doubt, the existence the several committees in different legal aspects raise serious inquiries about the quality of judges in the Kingdom especially after establishing a new judicial system and failing to depend on it and enforce it totally. Hence, the study 143 The Saudi Royal Order No. 37441 dated 1 July 2012. Ibid. 145 Ibid. 146 Ibid. 147 Ibid. 148 Ibid. 149 R. Elsaman, "Factors to be Considered Before Arbitrating in the Arab Middle East: Examples of Religious and Legislative Constraints", 1 Int'l Com. Arb. Brief, (2011): 12-13. 144 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 will exam and analyze in the next part the qualifications, job performance, and training of Saudi judges in more depth. 4 Saudi Judges The study will divide this subject into three main points: Judges' qualifications and training Since Islamic Sharia is the primary authority for Courts in Saudi Arabia, the δaw of the Saudi Judiciary requires that each candidate for a judicial position have graduated from one of the Sharia colleges in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 150 Although there are some legal schools in Saudi Arabia, only Sharia graduates are qualified to be judges in Saudi Arabia with other requirements as stipulated by the Saudi law.151 Hence, the Sharia schools in Saudi Arabia should be studied in more detail. Sharia schools Historically, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia began opening Sharia schools at different times to meet different needs in the courts, education and other required governmental and non-governmental organizations starting with the Sharia College at Umm Al-Qura University in 1949. This was the only school that offered a legal education in the Kingdom in the form of a Sharia degree. Thereafter, different Sharia schools opened including the Sharia College at the University of Dammam in 2013. Currently, there are thirteen Sharia schools in the Kingdom.152 The Sharia schools in Saudi Arabia depend in their teaching on the Hanbali School of the Islamic jurisprudence by studying medieval texts that were written by the εuslim jurists in that era.153 For example, the major textbook in the Sharia College at Al Imam εuhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University is Alrrud Almurabbaebook for εansour Al Bahuti, who died in 1641. This book consists of seven volumes, and it is a mandatory textbook, which is studied for all four years of study at the Sharia school.154 Furthermore, as a result, graduates of the Sharia schools lack knowledge about the country’s regulations and laws, and they enjoy far-reaching implementation of legal systems of the past,155 so that the historic refusal of the Sharia judges to apply modern regulations, which was the one of the main reasons why the Kingdom was forced to create the legal administrative committees, is the result of the nature of their education. Furthermore, the Kingdom tried to enable judges to attain the highest levels of education by creating an Institute of Public Administration in 1961156 and the Judicial Institutional Academy in 1966,157 to train Saudi judges, enhance their expertise, develop their skills, and provide them the legal details that they need in the 150 The Law of the Judiciary article 31. 2007. See R. Alkhalawi, Legal Education Reform in Saudi Arabia: A Case Study of Taibah University, 1215 (2015). 152 See ibid. at, 8-12. 153 See F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia 8-9. 2000. 154 See Al Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University website at https://admission.imamu.edu.sa/programs/ProgramsLinks. 155 K. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. (2000): 363. 156 See Institute of Public Administration website available at http://www.ipa.edu.sa/Arabic/About/summary/Pages/default.aspx. 157 See Judicial Institutional Academy website available at https://sij.imamu.edu.sa/Pages/default.aspx. 151 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 practice.158 Also, the law encourages the judges to join these institutions by stipulation in Article 43 by providing that graduation from one of these schools is equivalent to four years of service in the courts.159 In response to questions about the efficiency of these academic institutions to meet the judiciary requirement especially after the new judiciary law, in 2013 the reorganization of the Judicial Institutional Academy was approved to serve the needs of the new judiciary law.160 However, it did not live up to the requirements of the judges, especially because the law of the judiciary stipulates that the Sharia certificate does not require additional training.161 Consequently, the impact of these institutions cannot be tested easily in the Saudi legal practice. As a small step forward in Saudi Arabia, after realizing that graduates from Sharia schools are not sufficiently exposed to the theory of law and the country’s regulations, some programs were established that combine both Islamic Sharia and law courses.162 For instance, in 2010, Al-Imam εuhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University created a bachelor degree in law that is affiliated with the law program at the College of Sharia. Since it is part of the College of Sharia, the law program aims to teach the principles of law with Islamic Sharia.163 However, it is still not clear if these types of programs will be handled as a Sharia department or as legal schools, and they are under evaluation as new programs, because the effort needs time to see its results in the legal environment in the Kingdom. In addition to establishing specialized tribunals, the Kingdom established legal schools to prepare specialists to work on different legal aspects in the state. Some of them are currently in public and private schools, which offer a legal degree that gives its holder the right to practice law in Saudi Arabia except in the judiciary. In addition, Islamic Sharia and law schools and departments have entirely different approaches to their curricula.164 Job performance and independence The Saudi judiciary law clearly recognizes that an independent judiciary is the core to protecting the rights and freedoms of the people by providing a fair trial in an independent and impartial Court System. Article 46 of the Saudi Basic δaw of Governance states that “the judiciary shall be an independent authority and, in their administration of justice, judges shall be subject to no authority other than that of Islamic Sharia.”165 The same independence principle is embodied in many provisions of the δaw of the Judiciary, which provides several safeguards. For instance, Article 1 of the δaw of the Judiciary states that “judges are independent and, in the administration of justice, they shall be subject to no authority other than the provisions of Sharia and laws in force.”166 The same Article provides that “no one 158 Ibid. The Law of the Judiciary. 2007. 160 See Alriyadh, The establishment of five new sections in the Higher Judicial Institute, Alriyadh 2013. Also, see Judicial Institutional Academy website available at https://sij.imamu.edu.sa/Pages/default.aspx. 161 See The Law of the Judiciary article 31. 2007. 162 See Alkhalawi, 10 (2015). 163 For more information about this school, see its website at http://www.imamsh.org/i/?page_id=2036. 164 See Alkhalawi, 10 (2015). 165 The Saudi Basic Law of Government. 1992. 166 The Saudi Law of the Judiciary. 2007. 159 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 may interfere with the Judiciary.”167 Article 5 of the Ordinance concerning the Prosecution of εinisters prohibits any types of interference with judicial affairs and makes personal interference in the affairs of the judiciary a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term ranging from three to ten years.168 Furthermore, one of the significant characteristics of judicial independence is the protection of judges from removal from office or transfer or any act that might compromise their independence. Article 2 of the δaw of the Judiciary states that “judges are not subject to removal from office except in the cases set forth herein.”169 In addition, Article 3 stipulates that “judges may be transferred to other positions only with their consent, and they are not subject to removal from office except in cases specified by the law, such as retirement.”170 εoreover, special procedures are provided and safeguards needed to ensure the protection and independence of judges in conditions that warrant disciplining judges. The δaw of the Judiciary states expressly that the Supreme Judicial Council is the only authority empowered to discipline a judge to ensure that the executive authority cannot interfere with the judicial system.171 The one of the most significant advantages of the new judiciary law is an application of the judicial independence principle, as evidenced by the limit imposed on the εinistry of Justice administrative power over the judiciary. According to the law, the right to supervise various aspects of the courts and judges was transferred from the εinister of Justice to the new Supreme Judicial Council. These aspects include judges' promotion, transfer, assignment, replacement, and training, and monitoring the proper discharge of their duties and other matters.172 Hence, the new judicial system provides greater independence for judges and their adherence to Islamic rules clearly with adequate safeguards to protect them from an arbitrary transfer, dismissal, or legal action. However, Kenneth Dam says: “Judicial independence does not depend solely on the structure of government and the judiciary’s formal role within it. It also depends on the judges themselves.”173 Hence, how the Saudi judges exercise their considerable independence in the practice over cases is a factor for consideration. The study found that the courts in the Kingdom depend on the traditional approach taken by εuslim judges in the Islamic history. Accordingly, the study will present the traditional εuslim judge in the Islamic history. 4.3 Ijtihad in the Saudi courts Unlike Western law, in Islamic Sharia, each case has to be viewed based on its own 167 Id. Ordinance concerning the Prosecution of Ministers No/508 (1961). Available at the Bureau of Experts of the Council of Ministers website at: https://www.boe.gov.sa/ViewSystemDetails.aspx?lang=ar&SystemID=122&VersionID=152#M17986 169 The Law of the Judiciary. 2007. 170 Ibid. 171 The Law of the Judiciary Article 59. 2007. 172 Ibid. at. Articles 6 and 58. 173 Dam, The law-growth nexus: The rule of law and economic development. (2007): 111. 168 1 4 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 merit, and past decisions can be considered only as guidance for the new cases under most εuslim jurist opinions.174 This position is still being maintained by some states like εalaysia175 and Saudi Arabia.176 Frank Vogel ,who spent several months in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to study the Saudi judicial system, says: “We find that Saudi qadi )judge) is in fact given freedom to practice a broad Ijtihad and is not restricted to the Hanbali or any other school.”177, He also says: “Saudi qadis )judges) do occasionally apply rules from other schools )in Islamic jurisprudence) when they believe that such rules are suited to the case before them".178 The functional and regulatory obligations of a εuslim judge have been clearly identified by Caliph Umar, the second leader of the εuslim state after Prophet εuhammad, to Abu εusa al-Ash'ari: “If you gave judgment yesterday and today, upon reconsideration, come to the correct opinion, you should not feel prevented by your first judgment from retracting... Use your brain about matters that perplex you and to which neither the Quran nor the Sunnah seems to apply.”179 Clearly, this letter is contrary to the doctrine of judicial precedent and the duty of εuslim judges to make decisions based on their own personal interpretations, and they are not prevented nor bound by their previous decisions. In addition, there is a rule upon which most εuslim jurists depend that provides that “Ijtihad cannot be revoked by another Ijtihad.”180 In fact, following this practice of the Saudi courts led to two significant consequences. The first result is the difficulty in appointing enough competent judges who possess the qualification of exercising Ijtihad in deciding cases. 181 Historically, there are some qualifications that must be in the mujtahid. They must know enough Arabic so that the judge can understand both the Holy Quran and the Sunnah of the prophet; they must possess an extensive, comprehensive knowledge of the Quran and the Sunnah; they must have a full understanding of the Quran's legal contents, understanding the particular texts that refer to legal rules and the incidence of abrogation in the Sunnah of the prophet; they must possess the ability to confirm the consensus of the Companions and the ability to understand fully the objectives of Islamic Sharia; they must be dedicated to protecting the Five Principles of Islam, which are life, religion, intellect, lineage, and property; they must be able also to distinguish strength and weakness in reasoning; and, finally, they must be known publicly as a sincere and good person.182 In the history of Islam, the most famous scholars in Islamic Sharia were candidates to be appointed a judge; 183 the community was small, and people did not need many judges as they do now. To achieve most of these requirements, Saudi Arabia faced a lack of judges in the Saudi 174 See A. Rehman, et al., "The Concept of Independence of Judiciary in Islam", 4 International Journal of Business and Social Science (2013). Also, S. Mikail & M. Arifin, "Application of Doctrine of Judicial Precedent in Shariah Courts", Malaysian Court Practice Bulletin (2014). 175 As the courts in Malaysia are divided into the three types and one of them is a Sharia court, the study addresses the Sharia court. See Mikail & Arifin, Malaysian Court Practice Bulletin, (2014). 176 id 177 F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. (2000): 107. 178 Ibid. at. 126. 179 S. Mikail & M. Arifin, Malaysian Court Practice Bulletin, 1-2 (2014). 180 Ibid 181 See the administrative Sheikh Ibrahim Hugail Chairman of the Board of Grievances and the Chairman of the Judicial Council, (Al majd tv ed., 2010). 182 M. Kamali, Principles of Islamic jurisprudence (The Islamic Text Society. 1991): 374-377. 183 Rehman, et al., International Journal of Business and Social Science, 72-73 (2013). 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 courts, as the Chairman of the Board of Grievances, the Chairman of the Judicial Council, and the Administrative Sheikh Ibrahim Hugail stated during a television interview in 2010.184 The other significant obstacles within the Saudi judiciary system is that the decisions rendered by courts are random, because they do not follow the rule of stare decisis or a similar doctrine to bind judges to their prior decisions or to those issued by higher courts.185 This obstacle forced the Kingdom to establish the specialized tribunals outside of the judicial system to assure investors, companies, and banks about their investing in the country as discussed earlier. Recently, the country started publishing the previous decisions in different volumes, which are available on the website of The Board of Grievances; however, they are not complete and continue to be prepared.186 This seems an extraordinary step for the Saudi judiciary. Nevertheless, the past rules do not mean that any other judge will rule the same way in the future, but having access to previous decisions may help to predict future outcomes. Possible solutions and improvements The Kingdom has tried during its legal history to balance between the sovereignty of Islamic Sharia as an Islamic state and a reasonable legal system to settle the different legal aspects, especially those involving business. However, in the practice, the Kingdom established various types of courts; the Sharia court is a part of them as presented in banking disputes tribunal, and the committee became like a court. These obstacles have been encountered by other εuslim states as well as Saudi Arabia, such as εalaysia, which has three types of courts, of which the Sharia court is one, none of which deal with civil legal aspects.187 The study found that it is difficult to make Sharia courts oversee entire cases in the same the classic way in the Islamic history for the reasons that the study presented earlier; however, the Ottoman Turkish Empire offers a great example of a potential sufficient solution to the Kingdom, because both of them seek to apply Islamic Sharia on all aspects of life. Some modifications may be required. The εejelle Ottoman Turks made the first attempt to codify a part of the Islamic jurisprudence for the Islamic state. The εejelle was the civil law of the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The εejelle issued sixteen volumes containing 1,851 articles from 1869 to 1876, which entered into force in 1877. Its design, structure and approach were clearly influenced by the earlier European codifications. These codes were based only on the Hanafi School, which was the official school of the Ottoman Empire. 188This appears to be a useful proposal for 184 Chairman of the Board of Grievances and the Chairman of the Judicial Council. 2010. See F. Vogel, Islamic Law and the Legal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia. (2000): 107-165. Also see Karl, Geo. Wash. J. Int'l L. & Econ., 149-150 (1991). 186 These decisions are available at the Board of Grievances website at: http://www.bog.gov.sa/ScientificContent/JudicialBlogs/Pages/default.aspx. 187 Mikail & Arifin, Malaysian Court Practice Bulletin, 3 (2014). 188 See Bhala, Understanding Islamic Law 1240-1247. 2011.For more information about the al majallah, see also Gemmell, Santa Clara J. Int'l L., 176-177 (2007).& K. Najmaldeen K. Zanki, "Codification of Islamic Law Premises of History and Debates of Contemporary Muslim Scholars", International Journal of Humanities and Social Science (2014). See also FM Goadby, "The Moslem Law of Civil Delict as Illustrated by the Mejelle", 21 Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law (1939). See also Ya'akov Meron, "Mejelle Tested by Its Application", The, 5 Isr. L. Rev. (1970). 185 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Saudi Arabia, and it can be improved by basing the law on all of the Islamic schools instead of just the Hanafi School to achieve the modern needs in the legal environment in the Kingdom. However, because the change in the Ijtihad principle as applied in Saudi courts needs the reforms of legal education, which may take a long time, the Kingdom needs a temporary solution to deal with arbitration and ADR issues beginning with assistance during the arbitration process and finishing with enforcement and recognition. After examining this area, the study found that banking disputes, as explained earlier, faced the same type of challenges with Saudi courts and that the Kingdom provided a temporary solution, which appears efficient in addressing the arbitration and ADR issues. This solution was establishing a temporary independent specialized committee )tribunal) for arbitration and ADR, which this study is proposing. The proposed tribunal could operate under the εinistry of Commerce and Investment, which has experience in supervising different types of commercial disputes through, such as disputes involving commercial paper. The proposed tribunal would have jurisdiction over arbitration affairs and its application of mandatory rules, the arbitration agreement and the upholding of recognized international commercial arbitration norms and practices, which would likely allow arbitration awards to be recognized and enforced in a way that could not be possible were such cases to be submitted to the Saudi court. Furthermore, like the banking disputes tribunal, the proposed tribunal may establish circuits as needed. Each circuit may be comprised of three members, and all members should have a legal qualification and experience and also be familiar with arbitration and ADR principals. In addition, one member must also to be Sharia qualified to be sure to comply with general Islamic Sharia principals, as they are the primary source of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Bibliography: 1.Abdulrahman εamdoh Saleem, A Critical Study on How the Saudi Arbitration Code Could Be Improved and on Overcoming the Issues of Enforcing Foreign Awards in the Country as a Signatory State to the New York Convention, Available at SSRN 2315728 )2012). 2.Abdulrahman Yahya Baamir, Shari’a δaw in Commercial and Banking Arbitration: δaw and Practice in Saudi Arabia )Ashgate Publishing, δtd. 2013). 3.Albert Hourani, A history of the Arab peoples: Updated edition )Faber & Faber. 2013). 4.Alriyadh, The establishment of five new sections in the Higher Judicial Institute, Alriyadh 2013.The Saudi Ordinance concerning the Prosecution of εinisters )1961). 5.Ata Ur Rehman, et al. , The Concept of Independence of Judiciary in Islam, 4 International Journal of Business and Social Science )2013). 6.CHARTER Of The Saudi Arabian εonetary Agency )1957). 7.David J Karl, Islamic δaw in Saudi Arabia: What Foreign Attorney's Should Know, 25 Geo. Wash. J. Int'l δ. & Econ. )1991). 8.Fabio Bortolotti, Drafting and negotiating international commercial contracts: a practical guide )International Chamber of Commerce. 2013). 9.Faris Nesheiwat & Ali Al-Khasawneh, The 2012 Saudi Arbitration δaw: A Comparative Examination of the δaw and Its Effect on Arbitration in Saudi Arabia, 13 Santa Clara Journal of International δaw )2015). 10.Fε Goadby, The εoslem δaw of Civil Delict as Illustrated by the εejelle, 21 Journal of Comparative δegislation and International δaw )1939). 11.Francis E Peters, The Hajj: The εuslim pilgrimage to εecca and the holy places )Princeton University Press. 1994). 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 12.Frank E Vogel, Islamic δaw and the δegal System of Saudí: Studies of Saudi Arabia )Brill. 2000). 13.Hossein Esmaeili, On a Slow Boat towards the Rule of δaw: The Nature of δaw in the Saudi Arabia δegal System, 26 Ariz. J. Int'l & Comp. δ. )2009). 14.Implementing Regulations for the Saudi Shari'ah procedure δaw )2014). 15.Implementing Regulations of Saudi Arbitration δaw )1983). 16.Implementing Regulations of the Saudi δaw of the Judiciary )2007). 17.Ibp Usa, Saudi Arabia Company δaws and Regulations Handbook )2008). 18.Jan εichiel Otto, Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative overview of the legal systems of twelve εuslim countries in past and present )δeiden University Press. 2010). 19.Kenneth W Dam, The law-growth nexus: The rule of law and economic development )Brookings Institution Press. 2007). The Saudi law of the Board of Grievances )2007). 20.Kristin T Roy, New York Convention and Saudi Arabia: Can a Country Use the Public Policy Defense to Refuse Enforcement of Non-Domestic Arbitral Awards, The, 18 Fordham Int'l δJ )1994). 21.εaren Hanson, The Influence of French δaw on the δegal Development of Saudi Arabia, Arab δaw Quarterly )1987). 22.εohammad Hashim Kamali, Principles of Islamic jurisprudence )The Islamic Text Society. 1991). 23.εohammed bin Ahmed Abu Zahra, Zahrat Al Tafseer § 2 )Dar Al fikr.). 24.Nancy B Turck, Arbitration in Saudi Arabia, 6 Arbitration International )1990). 25.Nancy B Turck, Dispute Resolution in Saudi Arabia, The International δawyer )1988). 26.R. εithani, Saudi Arabia: The Emerging Arbitration δandscape, Corporate Dispute εagazine 2-5)2014). 27.Radwa S Elsaman, Factors to be Considered Before Arbitrating in the Arab εiddle East: Examples of Religious and δegislative Constraints, 1 Int'l Com. Arb. Brief )2011). 28.Rayan Alkhalawi, δegal Education Reform in Saudi Arabia: A Case Study of Taibah University, )2015). 29.Richard Clark, The dispute resolution review )δaw Business Research. 2013). 30.Sa'id Adekunle εikail & εahamad Arifin, Application of Doctrine of Judicial Precedent in Shariah Courts, εalaysian Court Practice Bulletin )2014). 31.The administrative Sheikh Ibrahim Hugail Chairman of the Board of Grievances and the Chairman of the Judicial Council, )Al majd tv ed., 2010). 32.The Saudi Arbitration δaw )1983). 33.The Saudi Arbitration δaw )2012). 34.The Saudi Basic δaw of Government )1992). 35.The Saudi Code of δaw Practice )2001). 36.The Saudi Commercial Court δaw )1931). 37.The Saudi Council of εinisters δaw )1993). 38.The Saudi Enforcement δaw )2012). 39.The Saudi law of the Board of Grievances )2007). 40.The Saudi δaw of the Judiciary )2007). 41.The Saudi Ordinance concerning the Prosecution of εinisters )1961). 42.The Saudi Shari'ah Procedure δaw )2013). 43.Ya'akov εeron, εejelle Tested by Its Application, The, 5 Isr. δ. Rev. )1970). 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 WOMEN and BRITISH LABOUR GOVERNMENTS from 1924 to 1997 Souad GUESSAR Tahri Mohamed Bechar University-Algeria ABSTRACT The study is on the participation of British women in the process of the British δabour Party. The research paper included women who participated as cabinet ministers in the successive governments of the δabour Party since Ramsay εacDonald government until the Tony Blair government 1997. The study contains the biographies of these women contemporize δabour governments and to what extent were their participation and their effectiveness. KEY WORDS: Ramsay εacDonald )1929-1931), δabour Party, British politics, Tony Blair 1997. INTRODUCTION The values δabour Party stands for have guided it throughout its existence are social justice, strong community and strong values, reward for hard work and rights matched by responsibilities. The younger generation may not know that before 1918 no women were permitted to vote in British Parliamentary elections, and under the δabour Party 1918 constitution,189 it keeps a distinct women’s organization. Thither is a full-time women’s organizer, a separate women’s annual conference, a women’s section of the National Executive Committee, and a monthly publication, δabour Woman. δabour ladies played a great role both in government and within the Party.190 There is a great history of gender equality related to the δabour Party, looking back to 1923 when the first δabour women; εargaret Bondfield, Dorothy Jewson and Susan δawrence; were elected as εPs to the House of Commons.191 δabour ladies, day-to-day, they corresponded with ministerial and Prime- ministerial positions. They agreed with groups concerned with human rights, community activity and trade union publications, and in many cases played an active constituent in their work and decision-making. Women participated as Cabinet ministers in the successive governments of the δabour Party since Ramsay εacDonald government until Tony Blair government 1997 were εargaret Bondfield, Ellen Wilkinson, Barbara Castle, Judith Hart, Shirley Williams, Ann Taylor, Harriet Harman, εargaret Beckett, Clare Short, and εo εowlam. The First Female Cabinet εinister was εargaret Bondfield )1873–1953). She was the daughter of William Bondfield and Anne Taylor. She was born in Chard, Nigel Todd, “δabour Women: A Study of Women in the Bexley Branch of the British δabour Party (1945-50)”. Journal of Contemporary History 8.2 (1973): 159–173. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/259998, 161. 190 Angela εcRobbie, “Feminism and the Third Way”., Feminist Review 64 (2000): 97–112. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1395705, 99. 191 Charles L. Mowat, “The Fall of the Labour Government in Great Britain, August, 1931”. Huntington Library Quarterly 7.4 (1944): 353–386. http://doi.org/10.2307/3815737, 373. 189 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Somerset; she was the tenth child in the family of eleven children. εargaret’s parents gave her a non-conformist faith and ethic and strong prospects on the active character of adult females in politics and the workplace, whilst she educated herself by reading widely on social, ethical and spiritual publications. She took many high leadership posts as a trade unionist, and feminist. εargaret was a remarkable woman and her particular character helped her to accomplish many things and played a significant part in her political career. Her story began when she had left school, and she became a shop assistant aged fourteen, at first in Brighton and then in δondon. At that point she met δouisa εartindale, a firm proponent of women's rights who became her friend and she lent εargaret books and delivers an important influence on her political ideology development. She joined the National Union of Shop Assistants, because she was unhappy with the miserable remuneration and conditions of shop work, she was appointed Assistant Secretary of this union in 1898. On various occasions she was involved in covert investigations and presented evidence to the 1901 House of δords Select Committee. In 1910 the δiberal Government asked her to dish up as a member of its Advisory Committee on the Health Insurance Bill. Her attempts were repaid when she persuaded the government to include maternity benefits. When she was named an executive member of the Women’s Trade Union δeague she formed, with others, the National Federation of Women Workers. She became a leader of the Adult Suffrage Society, and in 1906 helped found the Women’s δabour δeague.192 Bondfield was considered to be one of the leading female trade unionists of the 1920s and was the first female elected to the TUC executive. In 1923 she became its first female chairman. εoreover, when δabour won power in 1929 under Ramsay εacDonald, she was nominated as εinister for δabour. Her brilliant achievements were Bondfield being the first female Privy Councillor and Cabinet εinister. She was defeated in the 1931 general election and despite later standing again, did not turn back to Parliament. It was in this year that she proceeded to “Cuttiversdoor”, a house at The Ridgeway, South borough, where she lived for the succeeding 21 years. After leaving politics, she returned to trade union workplace and also carried out peaking tours of North America as well as writing her autobiography. She lived in South borough until 1952 and died a year later at a nursing home in Surrey, aged 80. Ellen Wilkinson )1891–1947) served in the First Attlee ministry )1945 – 1950), she was the most notable and outspoken British female politician. Born and bred in εanchester, she was a feminist and a socialist who was one of four children born to εethodist parents. She was well educated, winning a scholarship to εanchester University, and never married. Through joining a wide range of women's groups she gradually built up an impressive political career, and in 1915 she became National Women's Organiser for the Cooperative Employees union, which eventually joined the National Union of Distributive and Allied Workers )NUDAW). Ellen joined 192 The Hutchinson Illustrated Encyclopaedia, 115. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 the Independent δabour Party )IδP) in 1907, remaining a member until 1932, and also briefly joined the Communist Party till she was elected a member when elected to εanchester City Council in 1923.193 Ellen's achievements were many. She got the first female εinister of Education in the 1945 δabour government under Clement Attlee, helped women over the age of 21 gain the vote, led the iconic Jarrow Crusade and her greatest victory was the elevation of the school-leaving age to 15, despite the shortage of buildings in the war-damaged Britain and the need for 13,000 additional teachers. She was just 4 feet 10 inches tall, but she punched way above her height, thus some of her nicknames: the ‘mighty atom’ and the ‘fiery particle’. It was a step of her political intelligence that, despite the fury with which she conveyed her views, she remained one of her Party’s stars. Two ladies served during the first Wilson ministry )1964-1970), Barbara Castle and Judith Hart. Barbara Anne Betts )1910-2002) was born in Chesterfield in 1910. Her father, a civil servant, was a member of the Independent δabour Party and became a contributor to the IδP journal, he was an avid socialist. Barbara was trained at Bradford Girls' Grammar School and St Hugh's College, Oxford. Castle was one of the founders of Tribune, the socialist weekly paper, and she had married Ted Castle, a journalist, in 1944, where they were together for 34 years until Ted died in 1979. Barbara produced a contribution to politics. At first it was as a journalist, and then she was selected for Blackburn, the seat she represented from 1945 until she went to bed. Harold Wilson became Prime εinister; he put Castle in his first cabinet as minister for overseas Development in 1964. Her success at this εinistry was recognised and she was named εinister of Transport in 1966, despite being a non-driver and her struggles with the empires of men led off. First, it was the breathalyser, and then seat belts. By 1968 she had achieved an extraordinary fame that encouraged some observers to choose her over Roy Jenkins as the next δabour leader. Back in government )1974 -1976), Secretary of State for Social Services, and in this post she introduced the payment of child welfare to mothers and worked along the State Earnings Related Pension Scheme. She radically reformed pensions and brought in child welfare as a payment to mothers rather than through the father's pay packet. Today, it is for introducing equal pay that Barbara is most warmly remembered. Barbara Castle broke the glass ceiling of politics; by probably her personal charms won her admirers: her passionate advocacy of the movements of the left guaranteed her criticism. Castle was a εember of the European Parliament from 1979 to 1989. In 1990 she entered the House of δords as Baroness Castle of Blackburn. She proceeded to take the field on a range of topics, particularly on pension rights. She passed away on the 3rd εay 2002. Judith Hart )1891–1947) was εP for δanarkshire )1959-1983) and Clydeside )19831987) before being constructed a life peer in 1988. During her time in Parliament she 193 Dick Leonard, A Century of Premiers Salisbury to Blair (London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 172. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 was a member of the δabour Government of the 1960s and 1970s. Her particular interest was in alien affairs and Judith Hart was δabour’s εinister of Overseas Development for nearly all the years δabour was in Government from 1969 to 1979. Jimmy Hood writes on his website: “Judith Hart was one of a very small number of women of her generation elected to Parliament in 1959. She was the fifth woman of all time to serve in a British Cabinet as Postmaster General, 1968-69 in Harold Wilson’s Government.194 Judith devoted all her political life to fighting poverty and injustice wherever she found it, whether in her own constituency or across the globe. She was a violent opponent of apartheid in South Africa and great defender of Chile, where in 1973 Chilean Armed Forces lead by General Augusto Pinochet successfully led a coup d’état against the democratically elected socialist Government. The δate Judith Hart was a formidable fighter for socialism, a great hero of Scotland, democracy and International Development.”She was an influential member of the Party's left wing, opposing nuclear armament and British entry into the Common εarket. Attending on the National Executive Committee of the Party between 1969 and 1983, she was Party chair 1981-1982. Shirley Williams served in Callaghan's ministry )1976 – 1979), she was born in 1930 in Chelsea, δondon, was the daughter of political scientist and philosopher Sir George Catlin and the feminist and pacifist writer Vera Britain. She was very well educated. δady Williams was a δabour cabinet minister in the 1970s. In 1974; she became Secretary of State for Prices and Consumer Protection in Harold Wilson's cabinet )1964-1970). When Wilson was succeeded by James Callaghan in 1976, she became Secretary of State for Education and Paymaster General, holding both cabinet positions at the same time. She advocated the comprehensive school system and the abolition of grammar schools, and in June 2012, she cited comprehensive school system as her greatest achievement, stating: "I have never in any way regretted them and I still believe strongly in them. The problem was that in many places they were heavily skimmed because people kept grammar schools in place beside them."195 In 1981, unhappy with the influence of the more left-wing members of the δabour Party, she became one of the gang of four who formed the Social Democratic Party. They were joined by 28 other δabour εPs and one Conservative, and by 1983 she became the SDP's. Williams spent time as a politics professor at Harvard University, as well as lecturing at Cambridge, Princeton, Berkeley and Chicago. She later married the Harvard professor and historian Richard Neustadt, who died in 2003. “Her bravery, determination and commitment to her beliefs has benefited both Parliamentary debate and public discourse for the last five decades. She published her life story in an autobiography called Climbing the Bookshelves in 2009, in which Williams wrote of her childhood as the daughter of the author Vera Brittain. 194 Anthony Seldon and Kevin Hickson, New Labour, Old Labour The Blair, Wilson and Callaghan Governments (London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2004), 75. 195 Ibid , 44. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Blair ministry )1997 – 2001) containd five ladies cabinet ministers Ann Taylor, Harriet Harman, εargaret Beckett, Clare Short, and εo εowlam. Winifred Ann Taylor, Baroness Taylor of Bolton, was εinister for International Defence and Security, based at both the εinistry of Defence and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, from October 2008 until 11 εay 2010 under Tony Blair governments. She attended Bolton School and the University of Bradford, where she graduated with a BSc degree in Politics and History in 1969. Ann Taylor was appointed Chair of Council and Pro-Chancellor at the University of Bradford with effect from 1 August 2015. She also received an Honorary Doctorate of the University in 1997 for her public life and political achievements. She is one of The δabour Party’s most experienced politicians, beginning her political career as εP for Bolton West in 1974, serving as εP for Dewsbury. She has held many senior positions both in government and opposition, including Shadow Secretary of State for Education and Shadow δeader of the House of Commons. She became δeader of the House of Commons in 1997 before being appointed Government Chief Whip. She was Chair of the Intelligence and Security Committee from 2001-2005. She has since served as a Government εinister in the House of δords, as εinister for Defence Equipment and Support and εinister for International Defence and Security. She has also served as a Representative on the Council of Europe and the Western European Union. She became a δife Peer in 2005, and she was created Baroness Taylor of Bolton, in the County of Greater εanchester, in the same year.196 She was made εinister for Defence Procurement on 7 November 2007, the Public Whip cites her as being "Very Strongly" for the Iraq War, Equal Gay Rights, and Foundation Hospitals. The 2012 play This House about the 1970s δabour Government prominently featured Ann Taylor as the first female whip. Harriet Harman is a British lawyer and δabour Party politician who has been a εember of Parliament )εP) since 1982, first for Peckham, and then for its successor constituency of Camberwell and Peckham since 1997. She has served in various Cabinet and Shadow Cabinet positions and, in her role as Deputy δeader of the δabour Party, she was twice the Acting δeader of the δabour Party and δeader of the Opposition: from εay to September 2010 and from εay to September 2015. Born in δondon to physician John B. Harman and his wife Anna, a solicitor, Harriet Harman attended St Paul's Girls' School and studied BA in Politics from Goodricke College, University of York. Having received a degree in Politics from York University, Harriet qualified as a Solicitor and her first job as a solicitor was at Brent δaw Centre in 1974.197 Under Blair, she was appointed the Secretary of State for Social Security and the first 196 Anthony Seldon, Blair’s Britain, 1997–2007 (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 18. Norman Fairclough, New Labour, New Language? (London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2006), 57. 197 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 ever εinister for Women, serving until 1998, when she left the Cabinet. She introduced the εinimum Income Guarantee increasing the income for the poorest pensioners. She introduced the New Deal for δone Parents, to help lone mothers who wanted to get off benefit into work. In 1998 Harriet established the National Childcare Strategy. From the backbenches, she campaigned for longer maternity leave and higher maternity pay. Working with the Trade Union KFAT, Harriet carried out research on the problems faced by mothers working in manufacturing in the East εidlands. After the 2005 General Election, Harriet was appointed εinister for Justice at the Department for Constitutional Affairs. Her responsibilities include giving the relatives of homicide victims a voice in court, reform of the family justice system, community justice centres and improving the antiquated coroner’s court system. This includes opening up the family courts to make them more accountable, improving the coroners system in particular for the bereaved families of service men and women who have died in Iraq and giving local communities affected by crime a say in sentencing. Because of Harriet's commitment to international development and because her constituency has the largest number of people from the African community in the UK, Harriet has been a regular visitor to Africa. She visited Sierra δeone in εarch 2004, Nigeria in September 2004 and Tanzania in εay 2005.In 2001, she returned to the Cabinet as Solicitor General for England and Wales, serving until 2005 when she became εinister of State for Constitutional Affairs. She held all of the government positions until δabour lost the 2010 general election. Under the leadership of Neil Kinnock, John Smith and then Tony Blair, Harriet has been a “key campaigner” for δabour; Harriet has campaigned in all Council elections, General elections, European elections and Parliamentary by-elections. εargaret εary Beckett, was born on 15 January 1943, she is a British δabour Party politician who has been the εember of Parliament )εP) for Derby South since 1983. She was the Deputy δeader of the δabour Party under John Smith 1992 to 1994, and briefly served as δeader of the δabour Party after Smith died suddenly. She later served in the Cabinet under Prime εinister Tony Blair in a number of roles, becoming Britain's first female Foreign Secretary in 2006. Beckett was first elected to Parliament in 1974 for δincoln and held junior positions in the governments of Harold Wilson and James Callaghan. She lost her seat in 1979, but returned to the House of Commons in 1983, this time representing Derby South. She was appointed to Neil Kinnock's Shadow Cabinet shortly afterwards, been elected Deputy δeader of the δabour Party in 1992, becoming the first woman to hold that role. When John Smith died in 1994, she became the first woman to lead the δabour Party, although Tony Blair won the election to replace Smith shortly afterwards to assume the substantive leadership. After δabour returned to power in 1997, Beckett became a member of Tony Blair's Cabinet initially as President of the Board of Trade. She was later the δeader of the House of Commons and Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, before becoming Foreign Secretary in 2006, the first woman to hold that position, and—after εargaret Thatcher—the second woman to hold one of the Great Offices of State. Following Blair's resignation as Prime εinister in 2007, Beckett was not 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 initially given a position by new Prime εinister Gordon Brown. After some time, Brown appointed her εinister of State for Housing and Planning in 2008, before she left the government for the last time in 2009.198 She is the longest-serving female εP in the House of Commons, as well as being one of the longest-serving ministers in government history. She is also one of the few remaining εPs who served in the δabour governments of the 1970s. She was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2013 New Year Honours for public and political service. Clare Short was born on 15 February 1946 and she is a British politician, and a member of the δabour Party. She was the εember of Parliament for Birmingham δadywood from 1983 to 2010; for most of this period she was a δabour Party εP, but she resigned the Party whip in 2006 and served the remainder of her term as an Independent. She stood down as a εember of Parliament in the 2010 general election. Short was Secretary of State for International Development in the government of Prime εinister Tony Blair from 3 εay 1997 until her resignation from that post on 12 εay 2003. Shortly before her retirement from Parliament in 2010, she was strongly rebuked by her own Party when she announced her support for a hung Parliament, a situation which subsequently occurred in the 2010 General Election. εo εowlam )1949-2005), she was the second of three children, was born in Watford, northwest of δondon. εowlam began her schooling at Chiswick Girls’ grammar school in West δondon. She became interested in politics at an early age. εowlam went to Trevelyan College in Durham, where she read Anthropology and Sociology. During her first year, she joined the δabour Party and later worked for Tony Benn, δabour εP in δondon, as a research assistant and for American writer Alvin Toffler. Following her graduation from Trevelyan College, εowlam moved in 1973 to America, where she completed a PhD in Political Science at the University of Iowa. In 1977 she lectured briefly in Politics at both the University of Wisconsin and Florida State University. Having been a member of the δabour Party since 1969, εowlam was elected δabour εP for Redcar, North Yorkshire in 1987. It was a position she held for 14 years, until 2001. She later became a member of the influential House of Commons Public Accounts Committee and the Party’s ruling National Executive Committee. In 1994 she helped to organise Tony Blair’s leadership bid. He later described her as “one of the most remarkable and colourful personalities ever to enter British politics”. Blair made her Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland and over the next few years, she held various Opposition posts. In 1995, at age 46, εowlam married Jon Norton, a merchant banker turned artist. Whilst she had not married before and had no children of her own, she enjoyed family life with Norton and his two children from a previous marriage. 198 Leonard, A Century of Premiers Salisbury to Blair , 20. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 A few weeks before the εay 1997 general elections, εowlam was diagnosed with a benign brain tumour. As a result, she gained weight and lost her hair, having to wear a wig, but did not let it affect her work. She was soon dubbed ‘Brave εo’. When δabour won the 1997 elections, εowlam was appointed Secretary of State for Northern Ireland and later that year, was admitted to the Privy Council for Northern Ireland. Her main task was to help find a peaceful solution to the longstanding troubles of Northern Ireland.199 In early 1998, when negotiations in Northern Ireland had reached an impasse, εowlam took a significant political risk. She entered the εaze Prison near Belfast, to speak to convicted Irish paramilitaries face-to-face, when it became apparent that the peace process required their backing. Following her visit with the prisoners, their political representatives announced they were rejoining the talks. Shortly after, the Good Friday Agreement for Ireland was secured on 10th April 1998. After a government reshuffle in October 1999, εowlam became εinister for the Cabinet Office and Chancellor of the Duchy of δancaster. She was also granted freedom of the city of Coventry, where she grew up. δater that year, she was replaced by Peter εandelson and became Blair’s Cabinet ‘Enforcer’, after turning down the job of Health Secretary. She was responsible for several important issues, including drug policy and Parliamentary reform. εowlam held this office until, increasingly disenchanted with Blair’s leadership, she became a vocal opponent of the war in Iraq. In early 2000, she personally informed the press of her boredom with her job, telling them she wanted to be the δabour candidate for the post of εayor of δondon. On 4th September 2000, she announced her intention to retire from Parliament and finally stepped down as an εP at the General Election of June 2001.200 Following her retirement from the House of Commons, εowlam focussed on foreign policy towards Iraq and became a noted critic of government policy, particularly in this field. In an unlikely step, she took on the job of Agony Aunt for men’s magazine ‘Zoo’, giving frank answers to sex questions. εowlam set up a charity called εoεo Helps, to assist rehabilitating drug users and to provide support for the parents or carers of disabled children. In 2002, εowlam published her political memoirs, entitled ‘εomentum’. On 3rd August 2005, the BBC announced that εowlam was critically ill at King’s College Hospital in δondon and she died at age 55 on 19th August 2005. εowlam will be remembered for her toughness and courage, as well as her persistence and good humour. She gained an enormous amount of public popularity and support for her work in Northern Ireland, by handling what was arguably one of the most dangerous and challenging jobs in government. She was the first and is currently still the only woman to hold the position of Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. CONCδUSION 199 200 The Hutchinson Illustrated Encyclopaedia, 689. Seldon, Blair’s Britain, 1997–2007, 515. 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Women realized a great victory during the 1997 general election by their arrival in Parliament of 121 women - 101 of them δabour. They were called Blair’s babes. There was a high hope that they would transform Parliament and make a big difference to the government. But the new women were "whipped into line" and became mostly compliant, hopeful of preferment. Although, there is a great history of gender equality related to the δabour Party, but still δabour had the majority or all-male shadow cabinets. It is a profound source of embarrassment to δabour that they have never had a female leader. Harriet Harman and εargaret Beckett have both kept the seat warm between permanent male leaders just for a few months, but there has never been a δabour Thatcher. BIBδIOGRAPHY Fairclough, Norman. New δabour, New δanguage?. δondon and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2006. δeonard, Dick.A Century of Premiers Salisbury to Blair. δondon and New York: Palgrave εacmillan, 2005. εcRobbie, Angela. “Feminism and the Third Way”. Feminist Review 64 )2000): 97– 112. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1395705. εowat, Charles δ. “The Fall of the δabour Government in Great Britain, August, 1931”. Huntington δibrary Quarterly 7.4 )1944): 353– 386. http://doi.org/10.2307/3815737. Seldon ,Anthony and Hickson, Kevin. New δabour, Old δabour The Blair, Wilson and Callaghan Governments. δondon and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2004. Seldon, Anthony. Blair’s Britain, 1997–2007. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007. The Hutchinson Illustrated Encyclopaedia, of British History .Great Britain, Helicon, 2001. Todd, Nigel. “δabour Women: A Study of Women in the Bexley Branch of the British δabour Party )1945-50)”. Journal of Contemporary History 8.2 )1973): 159– 173. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/259998. 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Teaching Experiences of the Vocational Trainers in Chinese Cuisine Training for Immigrant Women in Taiwan 1 Ya-Ling Wu 2Chuan-Chun Chao National Pingtung University of Science & Technology, Pingtung, Taiwan, R.O. C. Abstract In Taiwan, substantial resources have been invested in vocational training programs for immigrant women as a solution to their lack of career development opportunities. This study examined the teaching experiences of vocational trainers in Chinese cuisine training for immigrant women in Taiwan. The data were collected through indepth, semi-structured interviews and observation with 3 vocational trainers in Chinese cuisine training for immigrant women in Taiwan. The data were analyzed by thematic analysis method. The findings indicated that the vocational trainers found that most of the immigrant women in Taiwan were economically disadvantaged, and that they participated in vocational training programs because of developing professional skills and obtaining technological certificates for employment. Before providing the training, the trainers investigated female immigrant trainees’ background and integrated their homeland cuisine culture into the training. In order to facilitate the learning of female immigrant trainees who had difficulty in Chinese reading, the vocational trainers illustrated the teaching with graphics and encouraged them to ask questions and provided extra individual guidance of professional skills. Additionally, in the classroom, the vocational trainers would invite immigrant women to share their homeland cuisine to promote the visibility of their culture and their selfconfidence. Because of providing the training for immigrant women, the trainers developed more multicultural literacy and modified their opinions towards female immigrants in Taiwan. Keyword: immigrant woman, vocational training, vocational trainers 1. Introduction Transnational marriage reflects globalization. Asia is the area with the most stable growth transnational marriage, and Taiwan is the country with the highest proportion of transnational marriage in Asia )The Economist, 2011). According to the statistics of Taiwan government, in the end of 2015, the number of foreign spouses and spouses from εainland China in Taiwan exceeded 500,000, and they accounted for more than 2.0% of the national population. Of female immigrants in Taiwan, 60% were from εainland China, followed by the Southeast Asian countries )εinistry of the Interior, 2016). For female immigrants, receiving education and vocational training could increase their employment opportunity, increase their income, and benefit their economic and social integration with the host countries )Park, 2011). A past survey discovered that, after immigrating to Taiwan, female immigrants urgently needed to receive “vocational training programs” )Wu, 2014). In vocational training programs, vocational trainers are responsible for important tasks, including teaching, course delivery, classroom management, and providing assessments. εoreover, the participants in vocational training programs particularly for immigrant women are the female immigrants with diversified cultural backgrounds. Therefore, the teaching experiences of vocational trainers in vocational training for immigrant women in Taiwan are worthy of attention. This study invited vocational trainers in Chinese cuisine training for immigrant 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 women in Taiwan as the research subjects to investigate their teaching experiences of vocational training programs for female immigrants in Taiwan, including their curriculum development, use of teaching materials, teaching methods, teacher-student interaction, and the influence of teaching on individual career of vocational trainers. 2. δiterature review In order to assist female immigrants who were willing to get employed, in 2004, Taiwan government announced “Foreign and εainland China Spouses Employment Assistance Programs.” Based on the regulation, εinistry of δabor in Taiwan started to offer vocational training programs for female immigrants in 2005. The training programs mainly include four categories: personal services )e.g., facial spa, hairdressing, and manicure so on), computing )e.g., computer information classes), and hospitality services )e.g., Chinese cuisine cooking). Chinese cuisine programs accounted for 24% of the training programs, and the average employment rate of the female immigrant trainees was 69.5% )εinistry of δabor, 2015). In addition, some of immigrant women’s Taiwanese relatives think that cooking programs may facilitate immigrant women’s housekeeping ability and make them stay home with the family )Wu, 2014). Overall, female immigrants have urgent needs for Chinese cuisine programs. The required qualifications of vocational trainers in Taiwan are stipulated by laws of εinistry of δabor, and vocational trainers should be those with relevant working experience and professional technical licenses. εoreover, private and public vocational training institutions shall employ qualified vocational trainers and report such employment to εinistry of δabor for approval. 3. εethods 3.1 Participants This study used typical case sampling of purposive sampling to recruit 3 vocational trainers engaging in teaching of Chinese cuisine cooking vocational training programs for female immigrants as the research subjects: A. John: male, a vocational trainer of Chinese Chefs Association in southern Taiwan, holding the Class C δicenses for εeat Dish and Vegetarian Dish Chinese Cuisine, who have engaged in the teaching of vocational training programs for female immigrants for 9 years; B. εary: a vocational trainer of Affiliated Vocational Training Center in southern Taiwan, who have engaged in the teaching of vocational training programs for female immigrants for 11 years; C. Fang: female, a vocational trainer of Chinese Chefs Association in southern Taiwan with several Class B and C δicenses for εeat Dish and Vegetarian Dish Chinese Cuisine. 3.2 Data Collection and Analysis This case study used semi-structure in-depth interviews and observation method to collect data. The interview outline included curriculum development, use of teaching materials, application of teaching methods, teacher-student interactions, and the influence of vocational training teaching on individual career of vocational trainers. This study used thematic analysis method to analyze research data, and the main steps included data coding, theme extracting, and data classification )Gao, 2008). 4. Results 4.1 Trainers suggested that female immigrants were economically disadvantaged 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 needing to obtain licenses by receiving vocational training. Before teaching female immigrants, the vocational trainers originally suggested that immigrant women came to Taiwan through transnational marriage to earn money due to economic factors. After they came to Taiwan, immigrant women experienced the pressure of procreation and economy, and thus started to work. Female immigrants received Chinese cuisine vocational training to obtain license to get employed or to start their business in the hospitality industry. The motivations of female immigrants receiving Chinese cooking training are to obtain license and seek a job. Female immigrants are mainly from economically disadvantaged family needing economic sources. In the hospitality industry, licenses are required for employment. According to my observation, two-thirds of the trainees in training programs received Chinese cuisine vocational training because they really needed a job. )Fang1040223Interview) 4.2 Trainers would understand the nationality and background of trainees first, and then integrated their homeland cooking with courses. To overcome the difficulties in reading Chinese teaching materials encountered by trainees from the Southeastern Asia, the trainers would additionally provide teaching materials with illustrations. Before the vocational training programs, the vocational trainers would inquire about the background of female immigrant trainees in the programs, prepare for their homeland cooking according to immigrant women’s nationalities and integrate them with the original courses of vocational training programs. Due to poor Chinese literacy, female immigrant trainees from the Southeastern Asia were not able to read normal teaching materials for the cooking license examination. Therefore, the vocational trainers would provide additional illustrations. The regional cultures of immigrant women in vocational training programs were completely different, and they had special cooking ways. I prepared such special cuisines and then explained them in the class. )John1040429Interview) Because immigrant trainees were not good at reading Chinese, I usually wrote down the ingredients in teaching materials and requested them to copy them in their mother languages. By doing so, they could understand ingredients better. I also provided detailed illustrations to help immigrant women memorize the cuisine more easily. )εary1040423Interview) 4.3 Vocational trainers invited trainees to share with everyone their homeland cooking. In addition to teaching patiently, they even encouraged trainees to ask questions and provided individual instructions. In the process of vocational training for immigrant women, trainers tried their best to enable trainees to share with everyone their homeland cooking to promote their learning motivation. Trainers patiently taught the trainees with poor Chinese literacy in all kinds of ways, including highlighting the focuses of training, verbally describing the topics, applying peer learning, and using phonetic symbols to facilitate the learning of female immigrant trainees. εoreover, trainers encouraged female immigrant trainees to ask questions when they encountered difficulties in keeping 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 notes or operating cuisine in class and provided extra individual instructions. When introducing relevant cuisines in class, trainers invited female immigrant trainees to share with everyone their famous homeland cooking in their countries. For example, when trainers taught them to cook rice noodles, trainers invited trainees from Guizhou to share with everyone how their local rice powder was produced in their own country. When mentioning “Buddha Jumping Over the Wall”, trainers invited trainees from Fujian to share with everyone the cooking ways of their own country and then extended it to the modified Taiwanese cuisine. )John1030924observation) 4.4 Trainers places emphasis on female immigrant trainees’ peer interactions, interacted with, listened to, and understood female immigrant trainees with empathy, and applied diversified vocational training methods to improve teacher-student interactions. When faced with the trainees with strong personality from εainland China and those with mild temper from Vietnam, trainers usually reminded these trainees of interpersonal relationships and taught them to cherish the opportunity of getting along with others. εoreover, trainers created the harmonious atmosphere of teacher-student interaction by sharing the culture in Taiwan. In terms of peer interactions, trainers used the group learning to enable female immigrant trainees to jointly operate cuisine and learn cooking. When getting along with female immigrants, trainers usually treated them as friends. Trainers usually tried to get familiar with trainees as soon as possible. By doing so, many female immigrants from the Southeast Asian countries would feel free to ask questions. )Fang1040405Interview) 4.5 After teaching vocational training programs for female immigrants, trainers possessed more diversified cultural literacy and changed their perspectives towards female immigrants. After teaching vocational training programs for female immigrants, trainers understood that national culture not only affected trainees’ habits, but also further influenced their learning of vocational training. Therefore, trainers changed the content of the standard courses, and then integrated them with trainees’ homeland culture. By doing so, the course content of vocational training was enriched, and trainers were able to learn authentic cuisines of different countries. During the programs, trainers faced many trainees with poor comprehension of Chinese, and thus changed the teaching issues that have never been investigated. Trainers started to reflect on the vocational training methods and paid attention to the importance of trainees’ question asking. Such experiences also improved the vocational trainers’ teaching profession. εoreover, after frequently and closely interacting with female immigrant trainees, the trainers not only changed their perspectives towards female immigrants through vocational training teaching, but also further encouraged other people to understand female immigrants more. The reason why my perspective towards female immigrants was changed was that I’d found they made efforts in their lives. They married to men in Taiwan, and had to 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 endeavor to adapt to the life in Taiwan. I felt that people in Taiwan needed to change their attitudes towards new immigrants by understanding them. )εary1040423Interview) Teaching in vocational training programs for female immigrants helped me learn to respect different views. After teaching female immigrants from various countries, I would learn to respect everyone’s opinions. )Fang1040223Interview) 5. Conclusions and implications In Taiwan, substantial resources have been invested in vocational training programs for immigrant women as a solution to their lack of career development opportunities. This study examined the teaching experiences of vocational trainers in Chinese cuisine training for immigrant women in Taiwan. The data were collected through indepth, semi-structured interviews and observation with 3 vocational trainers in Chinese cuisine training for immigrant women in Taiwan. The data were analyzed by thematic analysis method. The findings indicated that the trainers found that most of the immigrant women in Taiwan were economically disadvantaged, and that they participated in vocational training programs because of developing professional skills and obtaining technological certificates for employment. Before proving the training, the trainers investigated female immigrant trainees’ background and integrated their homeland cuisine culture into the training. In order to facilitate the learning of female immigrant trainees who had difficulty in Chinese reading, the trainers illustrated the teaching with graphics and encouraged them to ask questions and provided extra individual guidance of professional skills. Additionally, in the classroom, the trainers would invite immigrant women to share their homeland cuisine to promote the visibility of their culture and their self-confidence. Because of the training for immigrant women, the trainers developed more multicultural literacy and changed their opinions towards female immigrants in Taiwan. Because vocational training is a part of adult education, its main purpose is to correct social injustice and empower the disadvantaged. Therefore, to engage in teaching of vocational training for populations of diversified culture, trainers have to possess cultural sensitivity. εoreover, they have to use courses and teaching methods of diversified culture to meet the needs of female immigrant trainees and further achieve the original objective of vocational training. References Gao, S. C. )2008). The 18 lessons of qualitative study. Taiwan, Kaoshiung: δiwen. Johnson-Bailey, J. & Cervero, R. ε. )2000). The invisible politics of race in adult education. In A, δ. Wilson & E. R. Hayes )Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education )pp.147-160). San Francisco, III: Jossey-Bass. εinistry of Interior )2016). The population of immigrants in Taiwan. Retrieved from: http:// http://sowf.moi.gov.tw/stat/week/week10515.pdf εinistry of δabor )2015). The information of training programs for immigrant women. Retrieved from: http://www.taiwanjobs.gov.tw/Internet/index/index.aspx. Park, J. )2011). Job-related training of immigrants-perspectives on labour and incomes. Canada: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?catno=75-001X201100311539&lang=eng Patton, ε. Q. )2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The Economist )2011). International marriage: Herr and εadame, Señor and εrs. Retrieved from: http://www.economist.com/node/21538103. Wu, Y. δ. )2014). A socio-cultural approach to understanding the learning experiences of vocational training among Vietnamese immigrant women in Taiwan. Women's Studies International Forum, 44, 80-88. Author’s note: Portions of this manuscript were presented at the ICSAEE 2016 International Conference on Social Science, Arts, Economics and Education on August 5-6, 2016. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Nouf Almroani M.A Composition and Literature Indiana University of Pennsylvania The Inspiration of the Blues on African American Women in The Color Purple by Alice Walker Abstract: This paper shows the role of the Blues in changing African American women’s perception about their self-worth. It emphasizes the big impact of the Blues in awakening submissive, weak and mistreated women in The Color Purple novel by Alice Walker. By giving some historical background about the Blues and how it was a cure to mistreated slaves in the past, and by addressing how some African American female singers motivated women emotionally by singing the Blues during the twenties, this paper comes to the purpose of choosing the Blues to lead the change in Walker’s novella which is the deep emotional sense that the Blues has. Further, this paper shows how the Blues helped women vocalize the oppression that they were facing not only domestically with male dominance, but also publically in the racial battles. The Inspiration of the Blues on African American Women in The Color Purple by Alice Walker Blues is a classical music which was performed initially by African slaves who were brought from their lands in Africa to the United states. The history of the Blues developed firstly in the southern United States after the American Civil War. “The blues flowed out of the bitter hardship following the Civil War and the disheartening realization that although slaves were granted emancipation, African-American equality was by no means also guaranteed” )Sullivan 26). εoreover, Blues “was influenced by work songs and field hollers, minstrelshow music, ragtime, church music, and some folk and popular music of Whites.”. )The Blue Are Born from African American Culture). In fact, when African Americans brought from their lands in Africa, they started to express their sadness, torture and humiliation by singing the Blues deeply from their broken hearts. They did that in order to escape the reality of being treated badly and cruelly and to escape from all slavery’s conditions. Sullivan stated in his article, “Slave owners in the United States sought to completely subjugate their slaves physically, mentally, and spiritually through brutality and demeaning acts. African-Americans frequently used music to counter this dehumanization” )Sullivan 22). Thus, they used the Blues as cure for regret, betrayal, injustice or even poverty. During that time, African Americans created their own music that had a connection to their roots and heritage. They found that music is a way of uniting people together emotionally and it could also push them optimistically in their racial battle. Sullivan stated, “Black preachers recognized the power of music to bind people together and gather power from their numbers, with the potential to direct that united energy towards a common goal such as emancipation” )Sullivan 24). Women as well as men, sang the Blues to protest physical and emotional abuse which were practiced against them by men who treated them unfairly and dehumanized them domestically. In fact, Alice Walker in her novel The Color Purple pinpoints the role of singing the Blues on African American women in the novel such as Celie, Shug, Sofia and Squeak who lived under different circumstances that 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 affected them emotionally and physically. Walker in this novel covers some of the struggle that African American women suffered such as cult of domesticity, physical and sexual abuse, decision making and freedom of speech. In this paper, I will emphasize how Walker used the inspiration of the Blues as a turning point in her novel and how the Blues changed submissive weak women to strong confident women. Blues as a way of vocalizing women’s apprehension and discontent will be discussed through analyzing different situations that happened in the novel and The Color Purple educational movie which was made in 1985. The novel starts when Celie sends letters to God addressing her struggles and fears that she is living in with her stepfather, Alphonso, whom she believed to be her real father until her sister Nettie found the truth many years later that he is their stepfather who sold Celie’s children after raping her so many times. Walker focused on Celie’s struggle as abused and raped women and how she was affected by the Blues independent singer, Shug, who was brought by Albert, her husband, as a mistress with a nasty woman disease. Celie appears in the novel as a submissive Black woman who endured sexual abuse from her stepfather and domestic abuse from her poor farmer husband named Albert. In fact, he originally wanted to marry her sister Nettie instead of her, but her stepfather forced her to marry him. In fact, she is uneducated and poor woman with a very broken personality and low self-esteem because she is convinced from an early age that she is ugly and dumb. Furthermore, she was forced to work day and night in her husband’s house without resistance or even vocalization the abusive attitudes that she suffered from for years. Thus, she was forced also to endure her husband’s four ungrateful children. Years after her marriage, Harpo which is Albert’s eldest son, falls in love with young, robust confident and outspoken girl named Sofia. Harpo marries Sofia who is beating him whenever she wants. δater on, Sofia develops a strong friendship with Celie and was beaten from her husband as a result of his father advices, Walker writes, "Harpo want to know what to do to make Sofia mind. He sit out on the porch with εr. _. You ever hit her? εr. ast. Harpo look down at his hands. Naw suh, he say low, embarrass. Well how you spect to make her mind? Wives is like children. You have to let 'em know who got the upper hand. Nothing can do that better than a good sound beating" )Walker 35). Harpo beats Sophia and she beats him back, then she leaves to her sister Odessa’s house. Sophia’s strong personality and confidence did not change Celie’s weak personality even when they became close friends. Instead of being influenced by Sofia’s strong personality and independence, Celie asks Harpo to beat Sofia to keep her in the line because she is jealous of her strength and freedom. It is obvious that Celie does not believe that woman should be treated kindly or respectfully as she is programmed of her inferiority and submissiveness for years. Walker creatively chooses the Blues singer Shug as a turning point in the novel and uses her to lead the change by her strong independent voice that inspired women as Celie and changed her from obedient passive women to independent outspoken woman with unshakable selfesteem. Before highlighting the influence of the Blues in pushing women to the gender’s emancipation and independence in The Color Purple, it is worth noting why Walker used the Blues specifically to lead the change. During the 1920s some Black women started to sing the Blues as a way of vocalizing their struggle or even addressing their romantic feelings. “Black women such as εamie Smith, εa Rainey, Ida Cox, and Bessie Smith made the first blues recordings in the 1920s. These ladies 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 were primarily stage singers backed by jazz bands, singing what is known as “Classic Blues.” They were also known as “Blues Queens” )web 1). In fact, all these female singers convey their feelings by using their voices without mimicking any dialect that does not reflect their real identity as a Black woman, and their songs were a mirrors that reflect their own lives. )Wald 22). However, when female singers dominated the Blues on record, they became more recognized by the society. Female singers became also well traveled and financially independent and they attracted people’s attention around them. Also, they lived on their own terms. As they built a nationwide enthusiasm by singing the blues, they could break the stereotypical image of the Back women at that time. Further, the Blues lyrics that they sang have a strong connection to women’s struggle, feeling and sorrow. For instance, Bessie Smith’s song “Preachin' The Blues” touched women’s inner feelings about themselves, Smith sings, δet me tell you, girls, that your man ain't treating you right δet me tell you I don't mean no wrong I will learn you something if you listen to this song I ain't here to try to save your soul, just want to teach you how to save your good jelly roll Going on down the line a little further now There's many a poor woman down Read on down to chapter nine, Woman must learn how to take their time )Taft 236). These lyrics were performed by Smith with spirituality to touch all women’s hearts. By hearing these words, women in some ways could get a sense of hope towards themselves and know their value as women. The Blues song here speaks with women directly to tell them a secret that will change their weaknesses and rescue them from the male driven society. The secret is being convey by the inspiration of learning the truth behind the words. For instance, Smith sings first, “I will learn you something if you listen to this song” and then she sings, “I ain't here to try to save your soul” she means here the soul that has been programmed to be inferior and resistless. And in the end she sings, “Woman must learn how to take their time”, their time which was stolen from them to be maids instead of enjoying their lives with love and respect. However, the song emphasizes the importance of taking action and resisting women’s harsh reality, and this is what Walker generates in her novel by using Shug’s voice and identity as a code to free Black women. The critics CherllyI Wall discusses the connection that Walker made by using Shug to evidence how Blues freed women from the stereotypical images that they lived with, and how they become more recognized, respected and independent by singing the Blues. Wall writes, “Shug inspires Celie’s and Albert’s transformations because she is the novel’s moral agent” )δaGrone 127). She transfers their ways of thinking, personalities and reactions. For instance, when Sophia knows that Shug will sing in the Harpo’s jukejoint, she brings her new boyfriend Buster, and when Harpo asks her why she is here she replies, “l came to hear εiss Shug sing and to see what a nice place you built” )The Color Purple 01:06:15. 1985). Sophia and other women are excited to see Shug singing and dancing as she was a remarkable strong woman in the community. Everyone wants to meet and watch her seduction and enjoy her charming voice. Before Shug starts singing she said, 01:02:36 The song l'm about to sing... 01:02:39 ...is called ''εiss Celie's Blues.'' 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 01:02:47 Because she scratched it out of my head when l was ailing. 01:03:23 ''Sister. Shug strats singing, Sister, you've been on my mind Sister, we're two of a kind So sister, I'm keepin' my eyes on you I betcha think I don't know nothin' But singin' the blues Oh sister, have I got news for you Iґm somethin' I hope you think that youґre somethin' too )The Color Purple 01:03). During singing this song, the audience cheers up and claps for Shug while Celie is enjoying the lyrics with happy eyes and wide smile in her tired face )The Color Purple 01:03, 1985). By singing this song, Shug tells Celie in indirect way to believe in herself and her value instead of accepting the oppression and the persecutions practiced against her. The Blues’s lyrics and Shug’s charming voice touches something inside Celie because in fact, Celie rarely smiles and rarely feels happy or satisfied. But this incident expresses the inner happiness that has been transformed to her through Shug’s song. εoving to Sophia and how she chose to react to white prejudice when εiss εillie the εayor’s wife asked her to be her maid. Sofia replies, Sofia say, Hell no. She say, What you say? Sofia say, Hell no. εayor look at Sofia, push his wife out the way. Stick out his chest. Girl, what you say to εiss εillie? Sofia say, I say, Hell no εayor look at Sofia, push his wife out the way. Stick out his chest. Girl, what you say to εiss εillie? Sofia say, I say, Hell no )Walker 85). Sofia’s shows her strong desire to fight the stereotypes assumptions that demand her to be submissive to the perception of others like εiss εillie and the εayor. Being one of the people who has dark skin, Sofia is supposed to accept the offer of being a servant to εiss εillie with pleasure. Also, she should consider this opportunity as a privilege, but Sofia chooses to destroy these assumptions by saying “Hell no.” In fact, Sofia’s reply “Hell no” was not a hopeless and aggressive answer, but it was a cry to define her identity which in fact one of the strong emotions that the Blues gives to the audience to inspire them deeply and make them believe in their value and their right to be appreciated. Thus, defending herself against mayor’s assault shows how she was satisfied in taking action. However, despite Sofia’s strong identity before knowing Shug and hearing the Blues, Sofia did not resist or vocalize white’s supremacy before. The Blues gives her the opportunity to assert her right to be treated equally in a racist society. On the other hand, Squeak, Harpo’s mixed race mistress after Sofia leaves 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 him, has been treated badly from her husband Harpo. In fact, she is very submissive and obedient and she is called Squeak because she is very quiet and ineffectual while her real name is εary Agnes. After being taught how to sing in public by Shug, Squeak stars to build a new unshakable identity for herself as a Blues singer. She starts to sing Shug’s songs in Harpo’s jukejoint and then she starts to write her own songs. Harpo tells her one time after being a Blues singer, “I love you, Squeak. He kneel down and try to put his arms round her waist. She stand up. εy name εary Agnes, she say” )Walker 97). This situation brings many questions about Harpo’s respectful and emotional behavior with Squeak after achieving success and gaining social attention as a Blues singer. This indicates the self-worth that Squeak realized after being victimized for years, and it shows also how Harpo starts to worry about Squeak’s transformation that might lead her to leave him as Sofia did. However, Squeak is an independent as a Blues singer and she is proud of her skin color that has been criticized by people around her without vocalizing her anger against that. She sings, They call me yellow like yellow be my name They call me yellow like yellow be my name But if yellow is a name why ain't black the same Well, if I say Hey black girl δord, she try to ruin my name )Walker 99) εoving back to Celie, Shug and Celie build a strong friendship. Celie watches Shug’s luxury life and social attention as a Blues singer and became more and more knowledgeable about her miserable life with Albert. As a result, she decides to leave Albert’s house and children and she goes with Shug to εemphis. Albert grows hostile towards Celie and he tries to prevent her from leaving, but Celie resists that verbally like no time before and everyone was surprised about her reaction, “Everybody look at her like they surprise she there. It like a voice speaking from the grave” )Walker 200), Celie says replying to Harpo and his father, “You was all rotten children, I say.You maid my life a hell on earth. And your daddy here ain’t dead horse’s shit” )Walker 200). In εemphis, shug sings all the time, drinks, and eats much junk food wihle Celie starts to sew pants. She works over and over again to perfect the art of sewing pants and soon everywhere Shug sings, people want to buy pants from Celie. However, Shug could smartly influence Celie by using the emotional role of the Blues on oppressed women. As a result of Shug’s help, Celie became independent, confident and a well dressed woman. Overall, defining identity through the inspiration of songs is not an easy task to handle, but Walker proves through The Color Purple that this task can be achievable. Singing the Blues give women the courage to assert themselves in the society, belief in their femininity and be stronger and financially independent. It helps them survive the emotional and physical abuses that were part of their lives. Sophia as a strong aggressive Black woman who speaks her mind could not change Celie’s mentality or influence her to take an action, but Shug could touch something inside Celie by singing Blues to her day and night. Work cited 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 δaGrone, Kheven. Alice Walker's The Color Purple. Amsterdam: Brill Academic Publishers, 2009. eBook Collection )EBSCOhost). Web. 10 εar. 2016. "εiss Celie's Blues )Sister) ]From the Color Purple[ δyrics." δyrics.net. STANDS4 δδC, 2016. Web. 11 εar. 2016. <http://www.lyrics.net/lyric/6897718>. SullIvan, εegan. “African-American εusic as Rebellion: From Slavesong to HipHop.” 2001: 22-24-26. Print. Taft, εichael. Blues δyric Poetry: An Anthology. New York: Garland Pub, 1983. Print. Spielberg, Steven, et al. The Color Purple. ]Videorecording[. n.p.: Burbank, CA : Warner Home Video, c2003., 2003. IUP PIδOT Online Catalog. Web. 29 εar. 2016. "The Blues Are Born from the African American Culture." The Blues Are Born from the African American Culture. African American Registry, n.d. Web. 10 εar. 2016. http://bit.ly/1δYjfFJ Wald, Elijah. The Blues: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Internet resource. Walker, Alice. The Color Purple. n.p.: Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt, 2003., 2003. IUP PIδOT Online Catalog. Web. 20 εar. 2016. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 THE COUMMUNITY: CONCEPT, CALSSIFICATION AND IMPACT IN MANAGEMENT Mr. Louai Ghazieh1 , Mr. Sevag kertechian2 and Miss. Nadia Chebana3 1 PhD, University of Paris I Pantheon-Sorbonne, France. Email: luaygazea@yahoo.com 2 PhD student, University of Paris I Pantheon-Sorbonne, France. 3 PhD student, University of Oum El Bouaghi, Algeria. Abstract: A knowledge economy that is increasingly accentuated not only looking for single goal efficiency, but rather for an apprenticeship and legitimacy increasingly enhanced. The presence of community more and more has pushed us to wonder about the possible effects of such an organization for men of corporate power. The effects of the community could change the way of seeing with which an officer's decision. The community may be a determining factor when making decision so indirectly via its effects. Through this research, we tried to dig and search a little more on the community theme. Our goal is to analyze by following several relationships the process through which community affect managerial decision making. The main point of this study was to consider the community as a place to develop several behaviors of individual εember )mimicry, organizational apprenticeship, legitimacy). The central idea is that the effects of the community become a determining factor in management. Keywords: Community, mimicry, legitimacy, behavior. INTRODUCTION: The economy today is more and more based on knowledge. An increasing share of knowledge generation and circulation processes is provided by communities. εembership in a community has consequences for all its stakeholders. A community is created to meet a need. The community thus generates a set of effects following its creation )Guérin, 2004). The different members of the community interacting together, exchanging, sharing and defining themselves to a body of knowledge and information. Given that the community is a place of interaction between members, it becomes a source of information and a source of new ideas that are shared and exchanged among the different members. Indeed, the relations between the members and the community, the dialogue between the different parties, exchange and sharing of knowledge are "likely to reduce the uncertainty in which they are" )Granovetter, 1985). The goal of our work is to explain and understand how a community or social networks influence how managerial decisions are made. The objective of our work is to explain and to understand the concept of the community which constitutes a place or effects conducive and consequently can affect the managerial behavior of the individuals. First, we are going to show the concept of the community generally and related 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 notions. and related notions. Finally, we will try to explain the effects of a community, notably mimicry, organizational learning and legitimacy δITTERATURE REVIEW The concept of community The term community has several definitions. Which brings to wonder about the exact sense of the term. The American sociologist George A. gathered eighty-four definitions of community used in the American sociology. Per the Petit Robert )2007), the community is a "social group on which the members live together, or have the properties, the common interests". The word community is formed from two IndoEuropean roots: "kom" which gave the δatin cum, declined in French under the forms "com", "con" and "co" and which means together, and "mei" which suggests an idea of exchange, function to be carried out, of load to be assumed and which gave in provided δatin which carries out its load, immunizes exempt from load, "communis" which shares loads and "communio" community. In this perspective, the company is the meeting of the people who must fill a common mission )Grandsaignes d' Hauterive, 1994). In France for example, the community is a concept of law that refers to a group of people with and enjoying undivided way of a common heritage. It is opposed to society and to the association in a community is formed independently of the will of its members and that they do not decide on their implication. Originally a town was defined as a set of individuals who share the same territory and interact daily with each other. "The fundamental element of the community is sharing the same territory" )Abdelmajid et al, 2007). This communitarian form did not last long as a development of the media has upset the structure of the organization costs and made the meeting of individuals from different geographical, faster and easier. This evolution shows that the construction of a community became independent of the geographical location of the community members. Thus, it is no longer based on physical co-presence of their members. The concept of community now refers to a group of people from different geographical. The focus of the community is the strong sense of community and identification of each member of the group )Sitz, 2006). Abdelmajid et al. )2007) state that "the community is built by and through the will of its members. Therefore, communities are created mainly based on a common interest. " According Sitz )2006), “it is possible to decompose the ]common[ term from the δatin "communis", which originated in the approximation of "cum" )with) and “munus” )charge or obligation)”. Thus, the term "community" refers to an element common to several individuals or a group of several individuals. Delanty )2003) defines the contemporary communities as follows: « The contemporary communities are groups that are built increasingly on voluntary membership: they are the result of practices and shared interests rather than structures, and are created rather than produced». The individuals thus choose the community of which they want to belong. The sociologists define the community as a group of people which shares values and standards and which are conscious of belonging to a determined group. Per Wellman and al. )1999), « the members of a community are not any more forced to share the same territory, nor to have frequent 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 interactions so that exists a community: despite a large geographic distance, they can bring a mutual support, a practical assistance or any other social gratification and so feel community member ». Thus, the membership is a choice and the community based on the shared feeling between the various members to form a community. Thus, we can say that a community, as other social organizations, is not a simple addition of individuals; it is a changing set of relations, of which are a part attitudes and behavior of his members. The concept of group and community The group concept means a tangible group of individuals while the concept community means a group of individuals who all share a strong sense of belonging )Sitz, 2006). Wellman et al. )1999), consider that “the existence of the group ceases when its members are separated while the community is as long as a sense of belonging to its members”. At this level, we can say that the community then constitutes a social group whose members share a sense of belonging to the double interpersonal and collective level )Abdelmajid et al. 2007). The concept of social network and community For these last twenty years, an approach of the management based on the analysis of the relations between actors )individuals or companies) considerably developed. Inherited from the sociology of networks, this approach has now reached a certain maturity. This approach consists in studying the organizational phenomena paying attention not only to actors, but especially relationships that they maintain. The central concept is that of social network, which means a finite set of actors and their relationships with each other )Wasserman and Faust, 1994, p. 20). However, sociology, organizations are not a homogenous group of items that work harmoniously. Individuals are inserted into social relationships with others and this affects their behavior and the way they make decisions. Social interactions are the basis of social network and social capital )εanski, 2000). But social capital is a set of resources related to membership of social networks and influence that based on relationships of trust on which the individual can rely in its decisions or actions that undertaking )Coleman and Bourdieu 1998, 1980). Therefore, the community or the social network of individuals or enterprises can influence the behavior or how these shall take their decision. However, in the theories of organizations, several theoretical currents appeal to mimicry to describe and explain the behavior of individuals but also companies. Thus, work on innovation and especially the distribution of theories stress the important role of imitation )Schumpeter 1935, δevitt, 1966, Rogers 1983). Similarly, neoinstitutional theories by integrating social and psychological character dimensions use the term institutional isomorphism to describe the convergence between companies resulting from the imitation explained among others by natural mimicry as a response to the uncertainty companies face )Diεaggio and Powell, 1983). For example, banks imitate by refusing to lend money to each other because of the crisis of confidence that has developed because each bank holds fears that the other bad debts and therefore it is unable to honor its commitments. In other disciplines and human sciences, imitation has been more theoretical investigation. For δebon )1911), it 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 focuses on understanding the contagion of behavior occurring between agents belonging to a social system. Tarde )1895) argues that imitation is the elementary soul of society and that there are magnetic forces that drive people to copy one another without even realizing it. And Girard )1972), all human behavior involves imitation dimension. But the approach of social networks of governance allows us to understand better the processes of decision making. Nathalie Del Vecchio )2010) provides evidence leading to believe that corporate governance is impacted by these networks, which disseminate, from one organization to another, the new practices. This scattering effect can also be harmful, as shown for example Kang )2008), who observed that fraudulent behavior leads to sanctions by the financial markets, not only for the company in question, but also to those who are there connected through the administrator’s networks. In addition to the above arguments, some work in governance showed that the composition and functioning of decision-making and corporate control bodies responding to its own logic. For V. Chauvet and B. Chollet )2010), governance is thus not the fact of neutral group, but individuals. The decisions made then reflect their abilities, their level of information, but also their personal strategies. The social networks appropriately comprehensive approach this, by updating the way these individuals are bound by some very strong relationships. Gulati and Westphal )1999) show meanwhile that these relationships explain the selection of partners for joint ventures. These works complete those studying the composition of boards in terms of professional and socio-demographic characteristics of its members, as a determinant of decision making, beyond the characteristics of the members, their network is a source of access to external information and innovative ideas, but also doubtless a source of conflicts of interests. According Callon et al. )1981), "a social network is a group of individuals belonging to interpersonal relationships intertwined." For Walts )2003), "a community is a social network with unique characteristics." In a community, all members need to )re) know or can )re) know, that members must interact with any other member; this need is not valid in the context of a social network. We can also mention that in a community, members share values, norms and social representations, an own cultural system to them )Sitz, 2006). This clearly distinguishes the concept of social network community, insofar as membership in a social network does not imply adherence to a cultural system. This common cultural system is the cause of a common community between the different members of the community as part of a social network "ordinary" does not exist )Sitz, 2006). Types of community εany are the research which dedicated to identify the various types of existing community, to seek to identify its borders, to explain its existence and functioning. Several community classifications are proposed by researchers. Tonnies )1887) defines community as "a human grouping based on “organic will” of its members and that “organic will” is of biological origin. He underlines that “Organic will is the psychological equivalent of the human body” and identifies three forms of community )Tonnies, 1987): 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The community of blood: that is the basic unit of the community, the family. It brings together under one roof "home", the spouses and their children, women married sons and domestic. The community of place: The community of blood as there is unity tends and grows towards the place of community. This close neighbors whose relations are based on the habit of living together and mutual trust. The community of spirit: The community of place, in turn, gets closer to the community of spirit which gathers individuals bound by the friendship. This last succession of the mental will and arises "from the similarity of the occupations and from the art", but also religions. Community in sociology In sociology, we distinguish three forms of community: Historic communities: a community is a human group established geographically or historically on a given territory, and which shares a culture or a common language. It is the case of the peoples, the nations, the civilizations, the ethnic groups for whom the geographical and historic criteria are fundamental. δinguistic communities: a linguistic community is a human group that uses the same language )or dialect, or speak) and the elements communicate with each other in that language. However, a language community is not homogeneous because it consists of human groups with different socio-cultural attitudes, ranging geographically, causing differences in vocabulary, pronunciation. A linguistic community may not be completely homogeneous, and is itself divided into other language communities. Even within a linguistic community may exist variants. Religious communities: religious community is a group of people who have the same religious ideal )the evangelical counsels for example). It can be a human group reflecting civil society; have adopted a religion or a religious sect. Such a group is important to some people )a "sect", a minority) to a subgroup of the population of a state )eg. The εuslim community in France). The religious community can also be a group organized to achieve the displayed religious ideal. Per the Guerin classification )2004), there are four types of communities: Communities of practice )CoP): developed in the late 1980s by the Xerox Institute for Research on Apprenticeship in Palo Alto )Cadin et al, 2003). The most frequently cited authors are undoubtedly Etienne Wenger and Jane δave )δave, Wenger, 1991) and John Seely Brown )Brown, Duguid, 1991), Berkeley. Communities of practice can be defined as “groups of individuals who share a common history, strongly interact, share knowledge and meet relative’s problems within an organization. )...) They are characterized by three dimensions: a mutual commitment, a joint venture and a shared directory” )Benghozi et al, 2003). Epistemic communities: )Haas, 1992) are more specifically "in load of new 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 generation of knowledge" )Cohendet et al, 2002) or, more precisely, groups of agents "sharing a common goal of Knowledge Creation and a common framework allowing to Understand this trend". Again, even more obvious, apprenticeship can be collective and must especially be that organizations are facing an imperative of permanent change. This second type of community is still -more than communities of practice further popularized - the real leverage which aspire features of "Knowledge εanagement" based on ICT projects that proliferate in organizations, if not in their practices. Virtual communities: concept popularized by Howard Rheingold in 1985. In his landmark book )1995), he defines as “social and cultural groupings that emerge from the network when enough individuals participating in these public discussions for quite some time putting enough heart to it that human relations networks are forged in cyberspace”. We are no longer account the work that they devoted to the study of music download sites users like the defunct Napster )Beuscart, 2002) to the students of engineering school )Charbit, Fernandez, 2003) via the user an alternative operating system such as δinux )Cohendet et al, 2002b). These works all pose the question of the conditions under which emerges trust allowing users to go further in the exchange of information, knowledge, and sociability and create a community more than the commodity relation. Affectual Communities )Charbit, Fernandez, 2003): like those between residents of the same village, friends, here are built on a renewed basis: good carrier material social links. Affectual community is part of a post-modern concept of consumption and belongs to the εarketing field. The proponents of a "tribal marketing" )Badot Cova, 1995 Cova, 1995) highlight either individual consumption patterns, but collective, in which the consumer identifies with those who have the same behaviors. In other words, the consumption of a good is not for itself and made pleasures, but by the social bond it creates with those who share it. Another important classification must be outlined, the Ournaux Classification )2007). By comparing the various attempts to classify communities, Ournaux )2007) distinguishes three types of communities: Communities of interest: it is the most current. They are essentially thematic and enable the sharing of information. There is no issue "superior". This type of community is not "compact", the links are there remote, sparsely personal relationships and the majorities of members are little involved and participate sporadically. The communities on the themes of music, peoples or fashion perfectly illustrate this category. Communities of apprenticeship: they are intended to encourage the exchange of knowledge like the master / apprentice, where a panel of experts shares their knowledge with all the fans. Typically, contributors and Wikipedia administrators belong to the same apprenticeship community. This type of community is very prolific: the members are very active and come back very often. This strong involvement generates a strong feeling of belonging. The group is strong and structural standards. Communities of identity: they are based on a strong sense of belonging due to a full 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 membership to an identity or assumed status and / or claimed. This type of community creates significant trade for the personal investment of its members can be very strong there. Typically, associations, ideological and political movements and minorities often create such communities. The different effects of community in management εembership in a community has consequences for all its stakeholders. A community is created to meet a need. The community and generates a set of effects following its creation. Different community members interacting together, by exchanging, sharing and by defining a set of knowledge and information. A leader in the community is surrounded by people who share with him the same profession )all members are officers), this favors the existence of a forum with people who have the same responsibilities and who are facing the same problem and have the same objectives overall. The leaders of the community and promotes the emergence of a set of effects resulting from the fact of belonging to this community and that translates with the behavior of other members. δike any community, the first effect can be deduced is the effect of mimicry. Belonging to a community created among its members a reflex mimicry as provost that adequate and quick solution if a member is faced with a situation seen as already seen. Thus, the community offers members a gain of time and resources. The second effect that can occur in the executive community is the apprenticeship effect. Knowledge sharing and exchange of information and capacity and know-how can create a dataset and allows apprenticeship. The exchange so is an active and mutual exchange; all members participate by bringing a set of knowledge and data allowing others to benefit from this knowledge and expertise. Thus, the community becomes a place of apprenticeship. A third community effect can also occur is the legitimacy effect. Belonging to a community gives legitimacy to the actions and behavior of its members. A community member can be based on the behavior and the decision of a community group to make its own decision. The community becomes increasingly a source of legitimacy. The mimicry Admits many definitions, but one of the first definitions is that of Thorndike which defines it as "apprenticeship to do an act in light do" )Thorndike, 1898). According εouricou )2006) "δimitation is to reproduce or seek to replicate an appearance, an act of others, to repeat what someone else has already done." And Tomasello et al )1993) "imitation" real "implies to reproduce a new action, with the same strategy and the same purpose. Thus, we can say that mimicry involves similarity, imitate a person is acting in the same way it did. Belonging to the community allows its members to imitate the actions and behaviors of each other, imitation is a solution and a tool to reproduce the results achieved by others and this by taking the same decisions and performing the same actions they have performed. According Burner )1996, P192) "by accessing a social community gathered around common activities, we not only enter a set of shared agreements, but "we included this sharing in a world of practices that go beyond the individual, practices that each operation depends on that it is commonly distributed. I see these 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 practices as a whole puzzle, linked to each other". As for Haunshild )1993) in a study of the phenomenon of imitation between undertakings )which is a community) states that "δimitations can be defined by the sequence: )1) a model organization adopts a practice given at time t; )2) the imitating organization is exposed to model; )3) imitating organization adopts practice )t + x) ". δimitation was addressed by different researchers in different areas of the organization. We speak of mimicry in the choice of acquisition strategies. Similarly, Haveman )1993) and Demil and rooster )2006) evokes the behavior of mimicry in the decisions of entries into new markets. The community of the leaders establishes a favorable place for the increase of the imitation. The existence of real experience which ended in a relevant result pushes the other members to imitate. The imitation becomes a typical behavior within the community and a legal behavior. The parties are based on the experience of the person to imitate seen the results achieved to decide. In a more and more unpredictable environment, the leaders are going to try to find a model on which they will be based upon decisions taken to try to reduce unpredictability, the mimicry is a solution to this uncertainty per εarch "the individuals in situation of uncertainty are often inclined to look" about the known solutions "their own solution" )Cohen, εarch and Olsen, on 1972). Belonging to the community allows some sharing of information knowledge and skills. This sharing allows leaders to benefit the behavior and decisions of others when they are faced with a similar situation or are in too uncertain environment, then mimicry is a foolproof solution. Given that the community is a place of interactions between the members, it becomes a source of information and a source of new ideas who shared and exchanged between members. Indeed, relationships that sustain and members of the community, dialogue between the different parties, exchange and knowledge sharing are "likely to reduce uncertainty in which they live" )Granovetter, 1985). The contact allows the exchange and sharing. Rogers )1983): "social similarities of potential imitator, with the imitated firm constitute an important element in accelerating the diffusion of innovation by imitation." Glaskiewisz )1989) concluded that "companies who face the uncertainty of the environment tend to copy the practices of others. Within the community, decision-makers will be looking for solutions. The decisionmakers will see how other organizations face in this environment and will draw for their decisions. The decision maker is more likely to mimic the behavior of a decision maker and he knows he has confidence "through its status and the status of its business, and through the results of his behavior. On the other hand, we can say that the behavior adopted by companies can be considered contagious. Per Greve )1998), "the actions of firms are contagious when their managers are paying attention". In a community exchange enables the observability of the actions of others which has the effect of making the most contagious within the community. Per Greve )1998) "reflects the observability and assumes the existence of information on the practice in question that affected the firm imitator." The community of leaders is the perfect medium for this observability. 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 No need to look to the media or corporate consultants, direct contact which maintains the different leaders is a reliable and efficient source for information about the behavior of other organizations. Greve )1998) but the emphasis on this fact by stating that "personal observations and information reported by contacts with other organizations would be more influential that the information disseminated by the mass media”. A leader more likely to imitate the behavior of another officer if he has with him a contact that allows him to observe and interpret behavior. Organizational apprenticeship Admits several meanings, but perhaps apprehended in two ways either perspectives that focus on the organizational aspects of apprenticeship is one that focuses on specific knowledge of the organization )εerindol,2007). The first case relates to the apprenticeship organization and in the second case it is like apprenticeship processes at work in organizations. Organizational apprenticeship in the strict sense "regarding the processes themselves, with a focus on the elements to learn the degree of integration )or not) apprenticeship processes among themselves and with those of the organization, temporal dimension of apprenticeship )episodic, occasional, continuous) and the nature of apprenticeship )"single" or "double" loop, for clarification of the implicit...)" )Pesqueux, 2010). Today the focus is on knowledge of a strategic vision; organizational apprenticeship improves the knowledge of different stakeholders of the community leaders. Pesqueux )2010) stipulate that “Apprenticeship can therefore then also be seen as the transformation of a corpus of organizational knowledge, and as a organizational behavior adjustment in response to changes in the environment, or, as a set of interactions between agents of an organization”. Thus, organizational apprenticeship is an effect resulting from the community for the exchange and sharing and it connects several aspects. In a general way the organizational apprenticeship highlights "the object of apprenticeship )information, knowledge, behaviors, acquaintance, representations, foundations of the representations), the point of apprenticeship )individual, group, organization), the trigger )error, bad performance, environmental changes: new technology, etc ...) innovation, the goal )performance, competitive advantage) and process )replication of an organizational action, organizational change, interaction and socialization, codification and storage etc ...)" )Pesqueux, 2010). Apprenticeship in the community is through the collection of information and knowledge shared by different members, the exchange allows apprenticeship and improving. εoreover, the management of these knowledge and information allows apprenticeship, which allows highlighting Pesqueux )2010) stipulate that organizational apprenticeship is based on the management of various information linking organization and environment. However, apprenticeship within the community of the leaders is based on knowledge of each member, the information it provides, its integration into the community. According Pesqueux )2010), "organizational apprenticeship based on two distinct cognitive processes but deeply meshed." He added that the individual process is based on "the basis of classical apprenticeship loop" signals )ie selective perception) 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Interpretation - response "with respect to a reference standard terms, too, groups of individuals in an organizational framework conducive to apprenticeship "and the other a collective thought process on" the basic building shared references, resulting in information management from codified representations and organizing meetings around these representations". Per Valérie Inès )1996) organizational apprenticeship can be defined as "a collective process of acquisition and development of knowledge and practices involved in the permanent reshaping of the organization". So, the community of the leaders is a group which allows the collection and the apprenticeship following the exchange and sharing that is established within the Community by the various members. Also, the concept of organizational apprenticeship is supporting several perspectives which gives an overview, by Valérie Ines )1996) one of these perspectives is "the cultural phenomenon of organizational regeneration" which she is seen "by reference to a common culture, seen as a meaningful actions community". The community of the leaders is a apprenticeship community of practice which all of those members seeking to learn through contacts that they maintain some with the others. According Pesqueux )2010), "Communities of practice are groups of people sharing a set of problems or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this domain by interacting on a regular basis. These people do not necessarily work together every day. They share information, views and opinions. They discuss their situations, aspirations and needs. They can create tools, standards, typical conceptions, manuals or documents. They accumulate knowledge that binds informally by their collective apprenticeship. Their interest goes beyond the only application to their professional work. They weave together relationships that can lead to a collective sense of ownership". Communities of practice can be qualified as the "knowledge making" )Pesqueux, 2010). Also, he adds that "the community of practice constitutes in a way a place of negotiation of sense, concrete form of the enactment of a sense making somehow." Finally, these communities are a source of knowledge creation. Each member brings his expertise and skills to the community, and the sharing and exchange helps apprenticeship and improving capabilities and anchor the knowledge of all officers. δegitimacy Per Suchman )1995) "the legitimacy is a generalized perception that the actions of an entity are desirable, suitable and corresponding to a system of standards, values, beliefs and definitions socially built". This legitimacy is so much looked for especially in an uncertain environment. The legitimacy becomes a need for which organizations try to acquire. In the community leaders, everyone tries by deciding to justify towards the company and towards other members of the community. The community itself becomes the source of legitimacy for all its members. δeaders learn and mimic other decisions to legitimize. Dimaggio and Powell )1983) stipulate that “the fast distribution of quality circles in the American companies is motivated by the legitimacy of the companies which adopted these practices and not by their efficiency". δegitimacy is a need that leaders 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 seek. εoreover, Dimaggio and Powell )1983) supports that “the research for legitimacy is more important for the companies than the only collection of efficiency”. On the other hand, Asaba & δieberman )2006) highlight that "when a set of social actors adopt a behavior, the behavior will be considered institutionalized and other social actors would be encouraged to adopt it without thinking." εoreover, the legitimacy that comes from the community is incitante the emergence of these communities. According House and Al )1986) "the search for legitimacy is more important for survival than seeking efficiency". εoreover, they even argue that "only firms legitimized in their institutional environment can survive because legitimacy is necessary for organizations obtain and use resources". Finally, this legitimacy is an advantage that organizations want to benefit. Being self becomes an asset that organizations want to acquire. The community of leaders allows members to legitimize their actions and decisions. Face with environmental changes through the experience of other members and to all their knowledge and expertise. Conclusion Our research aims to identify the process by which communities affect decisionmaking in management. Throughout the review of the literature, we have seen the emergence of communities in the company and that this emergence carries many effects. A community is an organization where all its members maintain relationships and interact with each other for practice. These interactions between members generate effects such as mimicry, organizational learning and legitimacy. Throughout our research, we tried to identify the key concepts of research; Following which we were led to give a theoretical explanation to the phenomenon of community effects in the process of managerial decision-making. References Abdelmajid A. & δionel S., « Emergence et structuration des communautés des marques en ligne», décisions marketing, N°46 )avril-juin 2007), p.65. Asaba S. & δieberman ε., « Why do firms imitate each other? », academy of management review, Vol.31, No 2, )2006), pp.366-385. 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Wellman B. & Gulia ε., « Netsurfers don’t ride alone: virtual communities », in Networks in Global Village, Boulder, Westview Press, 1999. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Nouf Almroani M.A Composition and Literature Indiana University of Pennsylvania Email: Nouf.almroani@gmail.com 20 February 2016 The Power of Saying “No” Abstract: This paper shows how women in different literary works and from different races defend their identities verbally by using meaningful words which explain how they feel about being socially discriminated. εoreover, this paper explains how defending identity verbally can be achievable and influential at the same time. For instance, The Color Purple by Alice Walker shows how African American women” Sofia” fights the racial dominance by refusing to work for a white folk “the εayor” by saying hell no. Further, in the short poem written by εohja Kahf, an Arab American novelist and poet, she expresses her identity as Arabic and εuslim women by resisting nonεuslim gazes that make her fell less than other western women just because she is veiled. Overall, analyzing all these ideas will be discussed through the the impact of “creativity” which is explained and discussed by an Egyptian writer and scholar, Nawal Al Sadaawi. The Power of Saying “No” Sofia say, Hell no. She say, What you say? Sofia say, Hell no. εayor look at Sofia, push his wife out the way. Stick out his chest. Girl, what you say to εiss εillie? Sofia say, I say, Hell no )Walker 53). These lines come from Alice Walker’s famous novel The Color Purple. The echo of these lines is being like a shadow which follows me everywhere. The repetition of “Hell no” reinforces Sofia’s strong desire to fight the stereotypes assumptions that demand her to be submissive to the perception of others like εiss εillie and the εayor. Being one of the people who have dark skin, Sofia is supposed to accept the offer of being a servant to εiss εillie with pleasure. Also, she should consider this opportunity as a privilege, but Sofia chooses to destroy these assumptions by saying “Hell no.” In fact, Sofia’s reply “Hell no” was not a hopeless and aggressive answer, but it was a cry to define her identity. On the other hand, Squeak, Harpo’s mixed race mistress after Sofia leaves him in The Color Purple, has been treated badly from her husband Harpo. In fact, she is very submissive and obedient and she is called Squeak because she is very quiet and ineffectual while her real name is εary Agnes. After being taught how to sing in public by Shug, Squeak stars to build a new unshakable identity for herself as a Blues singer. She starts to sing Shug’s songs in Harpo’s jukejoint and then she starts to write her own songs. Harpo tells her one time after being a Blues singer, “I love you, Squeak. He kneel down and try to put his arms round her waist. She stand up. εy name εary Agnes, she say” )Walker 97). This situation brings many questions about Harpo’s respectful and emotional behavior with Squeak after achieving success and 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 gaining social attention as a Blues singer. This indicates the self-worth that Squeak realized after being victimized for years and it shows also how Harpo starts to worry about Squeak’s transformation that might lead her to leave him as Sofia did. However, Squeak is an independent as a Blues singer and she is proud of her skin color that has been criticized by people around her without vocalizing her anger against that. She sings, They call me yellow like yellow be my name They call me yellow like yellow be my name But if yellow is a name why ain't black the same Well, if I say Hey black girl δord, she try to ruin my name )Walker 99) These lines show how even in singing, women could express and defend their identities even under harsh marginalization from the mail-driven society. Defining identity through words is not an easy task to handle, but Walker proves through The Color Purple that this task can be achievable. In fact, Walker gives an interesting definition to the hidden aspects in the African American women’s personalities such as the strong will to face the harsh reality that enforces them to be silenced by patriarchy like Celia, who faces hard times as a wife without dignity, but she returns her integrity by knowing her value. Also, there is Sofia, the strong and independent woman, who has the honorable immortal words “Hell no” which reinforces Walker’s efforts to make the words as unlimited inspiration in serving the case for creating, defining, and redefining identity and many more. On the other hand, the ability to weave words in order to define identity and break stereotypes is not limited to Walker, but it crosses the boundaries to reach εohja Kahf . Kahf is a unique poet, who has the combination of having a Syrian background as she was born in Syria in 1967, and moved to United States with her family in 1971. Kahf’s experiences growing up in the United States equipped her with the essential tools to narrate the similarities and differences between the two cultures through her works such as The Girl in the Tangerine Scarf and E-mails from Scheherazad )Poetry Foundation). In her poem “Hijab Scene 7,” Kahf celebrates the εuslim women identity by revealing to the nation the correct concept of Hijab. Before moving forward to Kahf’s poem, it is crucial to give hint to Hijab and its stereotypes. The issue of Hijab stands as a marker of εuslim women’s identity. It is complicated because it is considered by Western world as a symbol of oppression to the εuslim women. For example, the Western perspective considers Hijab as a form of humiliation to εuslim women and reinforces these stereotypes images in the media and others. This proves that the problem is not about Hijab itself, but about original assumptions about the “other.” Homi Bhabha explains this point by referring to it as “exercise of colonial power through discourse” )67). This discourse refers to the Western stereotypes that have been embedded in the formation of the Western culture to misunderstand the identity image of εuslim women. Bhabha adds that the recognition of the stereotypes as an ambivalent mode of knowledge and power requires a thematic and political response which has an obvious role in supporting the colonial power that establishes these stereotypes )80). Thus, “Hijab Scene 7” comes to give a clear definition to the identity of εuslim women and Hijab. εohja Kahf acknowledges the fact that the veil or Hijab becomes like a trading symbols for Western writers. She adopts the idea that the whole 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 complex body of knowledge about the Islamic culture as “other” because she paraphrased Edward Said’s conception about the Orientalized, who has been given mistaken definitions that do not belong to reality such as the symbol of Hijab )Kahf 8). εoreover, Kahf states that “εuslim woman has become the prime model of the enervated, disabled, oppressed creature, the definitive victim of a tyranny” )136) that have been considered the major theme of the Western’s defense in justifying their reasons for accusing Hijab. During the nineteenth, twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the Western discourse has continued to focus on the problems of individual liberty and human rights, its depiction of the εuslim Orient started to reinforce the image of the “uncivilized” women who accept the mistreatment of ignorant men in considering them as objects and sex slaves. Therefore, the poem of εohja Kahf comes to reveal the major stereotypes about εuslim women which are being imprisoned by Hijab. In the very beginning line, Kahf states the famous stereotypes image about the reason that εuslim women wear Hijab which is “No, I'm not bald under the scarf” because most people in the Western culture considers Hijab as a must for εuslim women because they do not have hair. Unfortunately, they do not understand that Hijab is a form of identity to εuslim women and it does not refer to a type of accessories. Kahf continues to give explanation for Hijab in an amusing way by stating that: “No, I'm not from that country where women can't drive cars” because most Western people consider every εuslim woman who wears Hijab must belong to Saudi Arabia where women are not allowed to drive. Although Kahf seems to criticize this fact about Saudi Arabia, she declares that “No, I would not like to defect” because she wants to refer that Hijab is not restricted to certain group or country such as Saudi Arabia, but it is a solid symbol for εuslim women across the world. Accordingly, Kahf takes the reader to a discovery journey to the life of εuslim woman who is American and wears Hijab. In fact, she considers herself as an example of this type of women: “I'm already American/ ]what[ else do you need to know/ relevant to my buying insurance.” Kahf’s techniques in addressing the reader directly create a sense of familiarity between her and the reader because the reader will be able to activate with the context of this poem. As a result, the reader will be excited in knowing more about this veiled woman who can practice her life typically as any other woman in the world. Thus, the veiled εuslim woman can open a bank account, reserve seat on a flight, and speak English as well as other languages. Kahf wants to make it clear for the reader that Hijab cannot prevent εuslim women from performing their normal life as others. Additionally, Kahf’s strong ability and creativity are revealed in these lines: Yes, I speak English Yes, I carry explosives They're called words And if you don't get up Off your assumptions They are going to blow you away These lines correspond in meaning with Walker’s former lines. The reason that Kahf meets Walker through these lines is their responsibility in defining their identity by using the power of words, especially “No.” Both Kahf and Walker emphasize their words in order to represent their disapproval to the stereotypes that affect their identities. For instance, the strong usage of the refusing element like “Hell no” in Walker’s book and the sequential repetition of the word “No” in Kahf’s poem shows their own creativity in making words as explosion against any stereotypes that affect 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 the identity of each culture. This fact flows into Al Sadaawi’s perspective about creativity which applies on Walker and Kahf that creativity equals self-criticism as well as criticizing the other. Also, critical thinking and writing are important in defining ourselves to others )186). Al Sadaawi’s thematic analysis about the word creativity and its multiple functions encourages the readers to understand the power of words to define the identity and culture. On the other hand, Al Sadaawi follows adds another aspect to this creativity which the use of actions such as Firdaus’s behaviors in Women at Point Zero. Firdaus gives a great example of a woman who removes the stereotypes about prostitutes in worshipping money by “]tearing[ up the whole sheaf of bank notes” Also, she refuses to be under the mercy of men when she does not agree to “send an appeal the president asking him to pardon ]her[” )Al Sadaawi 98-101). These lines declare the power of creativity and agency at the same time which gives recognition to people with different background. To conclude, Walker, Kahf, and Al Sadaawi contribute to the understanding to women by using different threatening levels. Kahf’s level of threatening is that her words will be like explosive if the reader does not understand the right definition of Hijab. And the threatening level of Walker is to make the life of people who consider African American women as submissive and silence to be like “hell.” δast, but not at least, the threatening level of Al Sadaawi is that women have a passionate mind which enables them to use their own creativity to form the fourth feminist weave that is able to break the traditional boundaries in order to define the unified identity of all women across the world. This unified identity will be solid assumptions that all women with different background can be unique and creative in their own ways weather they are veiled εuslim women, African American women, passionate feminist activist such as Al Saadawi, and many more. Works Cited Bhabha, Homi K. The δocation of Culture. δondon: Routledge, 1994. Print. Kahf, εohja. E-mails from Scheherazad. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003. Print. Saʻdāw̄, Nawāl, and Shar̄f ̣atātah. Woman at Point Zero. δondon: Zed Books, 1983. Print. Walker, Alice. The Color Purple: A Novel. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982. Print. 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The Implications of Using a Blended Approach for Teaching Islamic Education Modules in Girls’ Schools in Saudi Arabia 1 Maram Jannah, Durham University, United Kingdom 2 Steve Higgins, Durham University, United Kingdom 5 Abstract This study examined the effectiveness of using a blended approach (different forms of technology, teaching methods and teaching aids, active learning and collaborative learning) in teaching students Islamic education modules in girls’ primary schools in Jeddah. Furthermore, it investigates whether a blended approach is suitable for teaching all Islamic education modules or if the traditional method is the ideal and only method for teaching Islamic education modules. The importance of this study arose from a call by previous researchers for further studies on the effectiveness of applying a blended learning approach in teaching Islamic education modules in Saudi Arabia and others conclude that there is a need for further research to find out why Islamic teachers are continuing to use traditional methods. A mixed-methods approach was used for data collection, including observation, an online questionnaire, group interviews and semi-structured interviews. The findings of the study indicated that teachers and students benefited from using a blended approach. Moreover, teachers believed a blended approach was suitable to use in teaching all Islamic education modules. However, Fiqh “Islamic jurisprudence” and Hadith “Sayings of the Prophets” are the subjects that benefited the most from applying the blended approach in teaching them. This result indicates that the nature of the curriculum, as well as the availability of the teaching aids related to each unit in the student textbook, are the key factors which encourage Islamic education teachers to use a blended approach when teaching Islamic lessons. Keywords: Blended Approach, Islamic Education Modules, Mixed-Methods, Saudi Arabia 6 Introduction The value of various forms of media, such as visual and audio files, when presenting classroom lessons was recognised even before the advent of digital media. However, these files’ use was not easily achieved, since, for many years, there were not enough forms of media from which to choose. Teachers had to rely on using traditional presentation forms, such as textbooks, writing on a blackboard and oral discussions. It was not until digital technology became mature and various other forms of digital technology, that using new presentation approaches truly became a viable option for many classrooms. By taking advantage of digital media, educators were able to harness the potential of the technology and use multiple modes of presentation. Doing so may make it easier to engage the interest of students in a lesson and make the learning environment itself more enjoyable and interactive (Mayer, 2009). Technology can be used to enhance the teaching and learning experience and, as a result, enhance the knowledge being delivered or acquired. In addition, it can be used to improve planning and the development of lesson content and to improve assessment and learning activities (Allan, 2007). Technology offers opportunities that can be leveraged in the educational field, and qualified teachers can employ new 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 technologies to improve learning as well as to broaden educational prospects. Religious education teachers may use technology to develop students’ critical thinking skills and to enhance religious knowledge by accessing original source materials, such as images of the Dead Sea Scrolls, recitations of the Qur'an or websites, such as the BBC religious website Becta (2008) and IslamiCity.com (Taweelah, 2000; Adebayo, 2010). However, teaching Islamic education modules especially in Saudi schools would be very difficult without face-to-face interaction between students and their instructors, as the primary aim for teaching Islamic education is not just to increase students’ knowledge of different religions, but also to teach them about the Islamic religion, in hopes of helping them to become better followers of Islam – people whose words and actions are influenced by Islamic principles and values. Additionally, Islamic education teachers should inspire students to practise what they have learned. Teachers must strive to ensure that their students really learn from and understand the lessons in religious subjects (Wood, 2008). This context inspired the idea of applying a blended approach to teaching Islamic education modules, as doing so may help to achieve the curriculum objectives and provide the interactivity that has been lacking in the traditional learning environment. Despite the fact that several studies have been conducted to examine the impact of applying a blended approach to teaching different subjects, we believe no study to date has focussed on the teaching of Islamic education modules. Furthermore, many previous researchers call for further studies on the effectiveness of applying a blended learning approach in teaching Islamic education modules in Saudi Arabia and others conclude that there is a need for further research to find out why Islamic teachers are continuing to use traditional methods. Therefore, there is a need for the current study to fill that gap in the literature. Finally, this paper focuses on the reasons motivating Islamic education teachers to use the blended approach and the benefits of implementing a blended approach for both teachers and students in teaching Islamic education modules. 7 Literature Review 7.1 Islamic Education Curriculum In Saudi Arabia, the Islamic education curriculum serves as one of the most important curricula taught to students in international and non-international schools and private and state schools (Al-Shafei, 2009). In addition, the Islamic education curriculum differs from that of other fields of education in a number of important ways: 1. The student comes to school already possessing significant knowledge of Islam, having been taught the religion from an early age at home by their parents and other family members. Therefore, while at school, they build upon and expand their knowledge of Islam. 2. What the students learn at school contains a firm and clear link to the way in which they behave and live. The moral education they receive is put into practice in their daily life (Kurdi, 2007). The objectives of teaching Islamic Religion are manifestly displayed through the Islamic education curriculum (Qur'an and Tajweed, Tawhid, Hadith and Fiqh) in schools. The Qur’an is the literal word of God revealed by the angel Gabriel to the prophet εuhammad over a period of 23 years. The Qur’an is recited in worship and describes the creation of even the smallest of its chapters as a miracle. In addition, the Qur'an is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe the Qur'an to be the book 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 of divine guidance and direction for mankind. Hadith, “Sayings of the Prophets” is the second reference from which the Muslim nation can learn right from wrong and can source the answers to many questions they may have with respects to the Islamic culture. It serves as an important tool for understanding the Qur'an by providing clarification on various issues that are mentioned briefly in the Qur'an. Tawheed, “Doctrine of Oneness” deals with the study of various issues regarding the first pillar of Islam )belief in the oneness of God and acceptance of εuhammad as God’s prophet). Fiqh, “Islamic jurisprudence” expands upon the issues of conduct outlined in the Qur'an. It also considers how humans can interact with each other while still observing Islamic morals. Thus, all the elements of the Islamic education curriculum integrate with one another, whilst also being integrated with other specialties, so as to attain the overarching objective of achieving servitude to Allah. The next section gives an overview about multimedia learning as it is compatible with the blended approach used by Islamic teachers. Moreover, it explained the notion of the blended approach used in this study. 7.2 Multimedia Learning Individuals are believed to acquire and absorb more information when words are delivered along with illustrations, instead of presented on their own, as in a lecture. This concept is known as the “multimedia principle”. By definition, ‘multimedia’ calls for using more than one kind of media. Some examples comprise of watching a video on a display screen while listening to the phrases being delivered, music and sounds being played or simply watching a PowerPoint display whilst paying attention to the explanation of the narrator. Low-tech samples of multimedia comprise of ‘chalk-and-talk’ exhibitions, which involve a narrator writing or sketching on a blackboard (or perhaps an overhead projector) while delivering a lecture or a textbook lesson that is accompanied by writing and photographs (Mayer, 2005). Learning is an intellectual process of knowledge and skill acquisition; it can also be said to be the cause of a permanent change in behaviour (Terry 2006). Thus, multimedia learning transpires when individuals produce mental representations from the words (voiced or printed) and images (drawings, photographers, cartoons or film) being communicated to them. Mayer (2005) emphasises that multimedia curricular designs work in the same way as typical human minds do, which makes them the most efficient means for promoting understanding. Moreover, using various and alternative forms of media may increase students’ engagement with their lessons. 7.3 Blended Approach In this study a blended approach takes the form of a combination of different forms of technology, such as computers, laptops, interactive whiteboard and an overhead projector, and using different teaching methods and teaching aids with active learning and collaborative learning when teaching aspects of the Islamic education curriculum (see Figure 1). Moreover, this will be a small-scale exploratory study to investigate the feasibility of teaching Islamic education modules using a blended approach which is compatible with multimedia learning. Thus, to investigate whether a blended approach is suitable for teaching all Islamic education modules or if the traditional method is the ideal and only method for teaching Islamic education modules. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Figure 1: The Notion of a Blended Approach 7.4 Different Forms of Technology In the current education setting, more and more educators are using technological media to transmit the information in the classroom (Hoic-Bozic et al., 2009). Computers provide various functions that can help in education not just in terms of instruction but also in learning. Educational institutions integrate computers to their system of teaching not just because they are believed to be beneficial to both the students and the teachers but also they are motivated to do so by the influence of government, industries and businesses (Blankenship, 1998). Even though, the expertise that maintains computers varies from the one that supports movie, radio, and television but the assurances to modernize educational procedures remain the same (Mayer, 2005). 7.5 Teaching Methods and Teaching Aids The method of teaching is the link between the teacher, the content taught, and the student. Specialists in the curriculum and the teaching process have developed several types of methods each has elements that can be used by the Islamic religion teacher to achieve effective teaching (Kurdi, 2007). In addition to the teaching methods, there are two approaches to classroom learning that can be used by a teacher to deliver knowledge to the students. The first is called learner-centred, where students are responsible for their own learning and it gives them the opportunity to engage in their learning environment more so than if they were in a traditional classroom (Schuh, 2004; Keengwe et al., 2009). Chiang et al., )2010) adds that, “the learner-centred approach has the potential to advance student learning not only through the fostering of higher order thinking and learning skills but also through the promotion of the ability to comprehend and apply knowledge to real life situations” (p. 1). In contrast, the second approach is teacher-centred and mainly focuses on the transmission of knowledge to the learner and involves more teachers talking than students’ questions )Schuh, 2004). Consequently, the teacher concentrates more on the content than on student processing and the classroom remains the only learning environment (Kathy, 2003 Acat and Dönmez 2009). The most common teaching methods which Islamic education teachers integrated with the ICT tools when delivering the Islamic lessons are (explanation, interrogation, deductive, dialogue, demonstration, collaborative learning and problem-solving methods) respectively from studying in a teacher-centred environment towards a student-centred environment. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 7.6 Active Learning Bonwell and Eison (1991) define active learning as “Involving students in doing things and thinking about what they are doing"p.5. Similarly, Simons (1997) defined active learning as “the extent to which the learner is challenged to use his or her mental abilities while learning” p.19. Thus, the core elements of active learning are student activity and engagement in the learning process and it is different from that of traditional lecture where students passively receive information from the instructor (Prince, 2004). 7.7 Collaborative Learning Dillenbourg (1999) defined collaborative learning as “A situation in which particular forms of interaction among people are expected to occur, which would trigger learning mechanisms, but there is no guarantee that the expected interactions will actually occur. Hence, a general concern is to develop ways to increase the probability that some types of interaction occur” )P: 5). Another definition (Gokhale,1995) stated that collaborative learning is a teaching method, in which students are working together in a small group to achieve a common goal. Moreover, each student in a group is responsible for her/him selves as well as for one another’s. Consequently, the success of one student helps other students to be successful. Kurdi (2007) defined collaborative learning as a teaching method deals with students learning through their groups and helps students become used to acting responsibly. According to So and Brush (2008), collaborative learning helps learners to play an effective role in discussion and takes care of their own learning, which will lead them to think critically. Gokhale (1995) adds that different activities in group work such as discussion, clarification of ideas, and commenting on other ideas will help students to learn from one another and it will contribute strongly to the development of student critical thinking skills. Such a method also enhances students’ self-esteem, which is likely to increase student motivation to participate in the classroom (Kadel et al., 1992). New students in unfamiliar situations will benefit from collaborative learning, as it will reduce anxiety associated with being in a new class (Kerry, 2004). Moreover, learners in a collaborative learning environment feel respected and connected to each other. Consequently, student the social interaction skills will develop by the application of collaborative learning (Kadel et al., 1992). With regard to its benefits for teachers, collaborative learning helps teachers understand student behaviour as students were given the opportunity to explain their actions and thoughts, which would not have been possible in the traditional learning environment (Kerry, 2004). 8 Methodology First Data Collection Phase Group interviews were used when collecting data from students regarding their opinions about the current methods of teaching Islamic education modules. Moreover, structured and semi- structured interviews were used with the teachers to find out what forms of technology they used in teaching Islamic lessons and the way of assessing students’ learning outcomes and to discover their positive and negative perspectives on utilising a blended approach when teaching aspects of the Islamic education curriculum. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Second Data Collection Phase A link to the online questionnaire was sent via “Whats App” to Islamic education teachers. The researcher is expecting to benefit from other features in selected applications, such as recordings (either audio or video) and the ability to answer any questions teachers may have regarding the online survey. The questionnaire was divided into three dimensions: background, current teaching methods and personal opinion about the advantages and disadvantages of using a blended approach when teaching and learning Islamic education modules. Thus, the data collection phases include distribution of the survey, guidance on responding to the questionnaire via “Whats App” and collecting data. Data Analysis Techniques A descriptive analysis using percentage mean and standard deviation was employed to facilitate the interpretation of quantitative data. 9 Results Using a Blended Approach in Teaching Islamic Education Modules Is a blended approach suitable to use in teaching all Islamic education modules? Yes 13 No 2 34 Depend on the subject and the topic of the lesson Figure 2: Applying a Blended Approach in Teaching Islamic Education Modules (N=49) As can be seen, the majority of teachers who accepted the suitability of applying a blended approach when teaching Islamic education modules varied according to the subject and topic of the lesson that the teacher wanted to teach. The most useful subject to use a blended approach in Qur’an and Tajweed, 1 Tawheed, 7 Fiqh, 22 Hadith, 19 Figure 3: The Most Useful Subject to Use a Blended Approach in (N=49) 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Fiqh and Hadith are the subjects that benefited the most from applying a blended approach in teaching them (see Figure 3). This is because Fiqh offers more opportunities for practical activities, unlike other subjects where such thinking is restricted, such as Tawheed, for its topics are theoretical and related to creed matters and the Qur’an as it is important for the teacher to enable students to sense the greatness of Allah’s Book and to help students achieve mastery of recitation. In addition, many teachers indicated that the failure to implement a blended approach in Islamic lessons is due to fear of boldness or undermining the honourable status of the academic content or showing disrespect for the Holy Qur’an by applying a blended approach. The following is a summary of the reasons for and the benefits of using a blended approach in teaching each module of the Islamic curriculum. Table 1: Using a Blended Approach in Teaching Qur’an and Tajweed Subject Reasons Benefits Qur’an -The students’ weak performance in the - Helps clarify the meaning of the verses and recitation of the Qur’an. -Hastens understanding of information and Tajweed "By using the technology I might be able helps consolidate it in the student’s mind to help the students to listen to the Qur’an -Relates what the verses contain of by more than one reciters". meanings and rulings to the student’s reality. - To help students to know the miracles of the Qur’an. -Helps students to know different programmes, which will enable them to - "Because most of the verses contain practice reciting Qur’an at home with the stories and I need to explain the verses ability to choose between more than one and to clarify the meanings of some reciter voices. words using different teaching methods to enable students to understand the -Increases the student’s desire to listen to general meaning of the verses". the recitation of the Qur’an. -Students need to understand and ponder - It contributes to making information seem over the meanings of the verses and more pragmatic and shifts it from the memorise some of them. abstract to the tangible. -To take into account the individual - Simplifies the meaning of the verses to differences among the students ease its understanding in a quicker manner. Table 2: Using a Blended Approach in Teaching Tawheed, Hadith, Fiqh Subject Reasons 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Tawheed - Diversity of its topics. -To eases the teaching process. -"I love innovation and renewal in the method of my teaching". - To deliver the information in a simple way by using visual and audio. - To take into account the individual differences among the students. -To show students some videos and documentaries related to the lesson. -Because modern technology has become a necessity in teaching environment. - Diversity of its topics -Each unit in the student’s textbook consists of 4 elements which are as follow: 1. The wording of the Hadith. 2. The narrator of the Hadith. 3. The meanings of the words. 4. Benefits from the Hadith. “The contents of the lesson in this order have a wide domain for innovation in teaching methods”. - Hadith is a subject that needs strategies for simplifying the information for the students. Hadith “Each unit contains a lot of wisdoms and values which the students should deduct, because I see that the student deducting the information is better and will enable her to remember it for a longer period, unlike if the information was narrated and the student role was merely to receive”. -To ease the teaching process. - For the availability of teaching aids that are connected to the etiquettes that are taught in the subject of Hadith and for the need to support some lessons by showing some videos and documentaries related to the lesson. -To use a mixture of teaching aids as sound, picture and some modern technology to deliver the information in an easy and simple way and to explain the same pieces of information in different ways. 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Fiqh - Fiqh is considered from the reality that the student lives in, such as learning how to perform ablution; the correct description of the Prophet’s prayer; how to perform Tayammum (purification with clean earth) if water is not available; the description of the Rain Seeking, Eclipse and Eid Prayers amongst other interesting topics. - For the large number of elements in a single unit such as the prayer, which has pillars and obligations there is a need for using active learning strategies, such as Role Playing, Brainstorming, the Hot Chair and more strategies to clarify and simplify the content of the subject. -Because the content of the subject includes various activities and most of the topics are about behaviours that the student should possess in her daily life. Therefore, it needs different teaching methods and strategies for simplifying the information to the students due to its content. "In the subject of Fiqh I find a possibility for diversification and renewal without the fear of boldness in the religion or undermine the venerable status of the academic content for the students". - For the diversity of the topics of the units and their tendency towards the practical side more than the theoretical side, such as teaching the description of the Prophet εuhammed’s "peace be upon him" prayer. “To change the style of my teaching and to be innovative and creative teacher” - To use a variety of teaching methods in explaining Fiqh rulings “Fiqh is a very enjoyable subject and a blended approach in its teaching can be applied successfully”. - For its closeness to the reality of our life and for the special worships it has in our religion and it has that which represents our manners and the way we deal with people. - To facilities the teaching process. - "Fiqh is more practical than any other subject". - This subjects are more flexible than the rest of the Islamic education modules. - Due to the online availability of teaching aids related to the subject such as, video, audio and pictures. - The need for showing some videos and documentaries related to the lesson. - To use a variety of teaching methods in delivering the information such as sound, picture and some active learning strategies. -To take into account the individual differences among the students. -Simplifying some information by using pictures, for example distinguish between the correct and the wrong way of bowing and prostrating in the prayer. It becomes clear that the motivating reasons for using a blended approach are diverse and vary from one teacher to another, while many of the teachers share an opinion about the benefit they gained from implementing a blended approach in teaching Islamic education curriculum. The benefits that they had most consensus on was that implementing a blended approach eases the delivery of information and contributes to making information seem more pragmatic and shifts it from the abstract to the tangible. It also helps in clarifying the content of the lesson in the student’s textbook. In addition, applying a blended approach hastens understanding of 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 information and helps consolidate it in the student’s mind (see Table 3) that is due to the variation of the teaching methods and teaching aids used for delivering the information such as video clips, sound, picture and some active learning strategies. εoreover, a blended approach save teachers’ time and effort in writing the correct answers for the assessment questions and it helps in facilitate the process of delivering the information to students as well as relate the contents of the lesson to the student’s reality. Therefore, it may help Islamic education teacher to achieve the primary aim for teaching Islamic education curriculum in Saudi Arabia, which is to teach students into Islamic Religion and not just to develop and to test their knowledge about different religions. Finally, teachers believed a blended approach makes the subject more enjoyable, increases student's motivation to learn and helps add interest and enthusiasm to the lessons because it is a renewal of and change to the routine of narrating. Table 3: The Advantages for Implementing a Blended Approach Islamic Education Modules Item N Qur’an Tawheed Hadith Fiqh Mean I believe using a blended approach 1 Increases a student's motivation to learn 4 14 15 16 2.88 Helps Attract the Attention of the 2 1 14 17 17 3.02 Student 3 Helps Clarify Information 4 10 15 20 3.04 4 Eases the Delivery of Information 1 13 17 18 3.06 Helps students to remember the 5 2 11 16 20 3.10 information for a longer period Relates the Contents of the Lesson to 6 1 10 18 20 3.12 the Student’s Reality Enhances the lesson’s content in the 7 1 8 20 20 3.20 student’s textbook Helps Increase Lively Engagement 8 0 12 14 23 3.22 Among Students 9 Hastens understanding of information 2 7 17 23 3.24 Helps add interest and enthusiasm to 10 0 6 20 23 3.35 the lessons 11 Makes the subject more enjoyable 0 7 18 24 3.35 The table shows a descriptive statistical analysis that includes the frequency, means and standard deviation for each benefit in each Islamic education module individually. As can be seen, applying a blended approach in teaching Islamic education modules comes with benefits for students. Statements ranged from the lower (2.88) to the higher (3.35) mean and standard deviation scores ranged from .694 to .978. Helps Increase Lively Engagement Among Students Qur’a a d Taj eed 0% Tawheed 24% Fiqh 47% 11 Hadith 29% SD .971 .854 .978 .852 .895 .807 .790 .823 .855 .694 .723 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Figure 4: Increase Lively Engagement Helps Add Interest and Enthusiasm Qur’a a d Tajweed 0% Tawheed 12% Fiqh 47% Hadith 41% Figure 5: Add Interest and Enthusiasm to the Lessons Makes the Subject More Enjoyable Qur’a a d Tajweed 0% Tawheed 14% Fiqh 49% Hadith 37% Figure 6: Makes the Subject More Enjoyable 10 Discussion This study seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of applying a blended approach in teaching the Islamic education curriculum. Thus it investigates whether the blended approach is suitable for teaching all Islamic education modules, or if the traditional method is the ideal and only method of teaching students aspects of the Islamic education curriculum. The research findings from observation, questionnaires and interviews will be discussed next. The important finding of the current research is that a blended approach is believed to be suitable for use in teaching all the subjects of the Islamic education curriculum. However, Fiqh and Hadith are the subjects that benefited the most from applying a blended approach in teaching them. Moreover, applying a blended approach benefited both teachers and students. Responses to the interviews indicated that applying a blended approach hastens the understanding of information and helps students to remember the information for a longer period. These results are consistent with the research undertaken previously by Yeh and Wang (2003) and by Chun and 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Plass (1996). Both studies examined the effectiveness of combining various forms of multimedia, such as annotated words with pictures and text, words annotated with text, pictures and sound - rather than presenting words alone when teaching English vocabulary to second-language learners. These findings are also consistent with other studies examining the use of collaborative learning. For instance, So and Brush (2008) found that collaborative learning helps learners exchange knowledge and ideas and to take in and remember information longer than students who work and study individually. The other important finding was that the nature of the curriculum, the availability of teaching aids related to the subject, such as video, audio and pictures, as well as the desire of Islamic teachers to use innovative approaches to clarify and simplify the contents of the unit in the student’s text book, were all found to be key factors motivating Islamic teachers to use the blended approach. Likewise, some Islamic education teachers have shown a positive attitude towards using technology in delivering the lesson (Al-Sharidah, 2012; Al-Shehri, 2009). Moreover, other researchers who examine using ICT in different subjects, such as Science and Social Science (Korkmaz and Karakus, 2009; Yapici and Akbayin, 2012) have revealed positive attitudes among both teachers and learners towards using technology. Moreover, Lubis et al. (2011) have emphasised that in Islam, the use of an innovative approach and modern technology is encouraged as it helps towards the development of positive thinking, the ability to innovate and to contribute to the drive for selfimprovement. The Qur’an states, “Those people who race to search for a good deed, those are the people who will be more advanced” )Qur’an 18:61). “Are those who know equal to those who know not? But only men of understanding will pay heed” )Qur’an 39: 9). “εy δord! Increase me in knowledge” )Qur’an 20:114). Al-Anazi (2004) adds that the Qur'an explicitly encourages Muslims to implement a thinkingcentred orientation towards faith. “Do they not look at the camels, how they are created?” )Qur’an 88:114). Similarly, Najati (1989) noticed that in the Qur'an there is an interesting conception of the mind which implies that it is cultivated by education and training. On the other hand, many teachers prefer not to use a blended approach as it may undermine the venerable status of the academic content for the students. This finding is consistent with the conclusions of many studies that there were religious and cultural concerns in using ICT among Islamic education teachers and they classify these as the main reason which might inhibit Islamic education teachers from using ICT in delivering the lesson (Sajjadi, 2008; Anzar, 2003; Lubis, 2009). AlSharidah (2012) adds that, although it is not easy to find out the percentage of Islamic education teachers who agree with this finding, it is important to admit that concerns are very much present among Islamic teachers today. These concerns could be due to the misunderstanding of Islam or teachers may have a strong religious belief which has resulted in considering the use of ICT as a very dangerous approach. In particular, the internet is found to be very harmful for students as using it includes ethical and social problems (Al-Sulaimani, 2010). These results indicate that Islamic education teachers need to know what an innovative approach is and the advantages which are associated with implementing such an approach. Thus, they need to be given a clear vision of the possibility of enhancing the Islamic lessons without fear of boldness or undermining the honourable status of the academic content. 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 11 Conclusion This study was conducted to examine the effectiveness of using the blended approach in teaching students’ aspects of the Islamic education curriculum in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. A mix of methods was used to collect data from the Islamic teachers and students involved in this study. The findings of the study revealed that both teachers and students benefited from applying a blended approach. Moreover, a blended approach was found to be suitable for use in teaching all the subjects of the Islamic education curriculum. However, Fiqh and Hadith are the subjects that benefited most from applying a blended approach in teaching them. Therefore, the nature of the curriculum, as well as the availability of the teaching aids related to each unit in a student’s textbook, and the availability of IT tools in schools are the key factors which encourage Islamic education teachers to use the blended approach. This result demonstrates the significance of access to the necessary equipment, such as computers and projectors, and the availability of teaching aids as these are shown to encourage Islamic education teachers to apply an innovative approach when delivering Islamic lessons and will contribute towards the successful implementation of a blended approach in Saudi classrooms. 12 References Anzar, U. 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The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11 (2): 13036521. 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Parents' self-deception in Naguib Mahfouz's Palace Walk and Arthur Miller's All My Sons Dr. Doaa Ahmed Hassan Ismail Assistant professor Sadat Academy for Management Sciences Egypt Abstract People tend to create a self-serving world through misrepresentation of reality to the conscious mind, a human trait that scientists have termed as self-deception. Although it has been a matter of heated debate among scientists since Freud, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Herbert Fingarette on defining and establishing the benefits of this trait, in (2011) a new theory has been evolved by both William von Hippel and Robert Trivers. Applying this theory to the Nobel Prize winners Naguib Mahfouz's Palace Walk (1956) and Arthur Miller's All My Sons (1947)'s main characters (parents) is the aim of this paper. Mahfouz's Essayed Ahmed AbdelGawad and Amina, and Miller's Joe Keller and Kate have deceived themselves. According to William von Hippel and Robert Trivers, self-deception is information processing biases, a process in which the individual gives priority to welcome over unwelcome information in a manner that reflects the individual's goals. Applying William von Hippel and Robert Trivers types of biases to these parents will explain their unconscious motives behind their behavior, a behavior that consequently achieve social and psychological advantages for each one. Keywords: Self-deception, Palace walk, All My Sons, social psychology, comparative literature. 1. Introduction We all practice self-deception to a degree; no man can handle complete honesty without being cut at each turn. There's not enough room in a man's head for sanity alongside each grief, each worry, each terror that he owns. I’m well used to burying such things in a dark cellar and moving on. Mark Lawrence, Prince of Fools People tend to create a self-serving world through misrepresentation of reality to the conscious mind, a human trait that scientists have termed as self-deception. It has been a matter of heated debate among scientists since Freud, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Herbert Fingarette on defining, theorizing, and establishing the benefits of this trait. According to Sigmund Freud, information flows through a mainstream. It begins with perception and ends with response. Through its mainstream, it could be modified, diverted, or even eradicated. Freud hypnotizes that self –deception is built upon the unawareness of the real existence of this information in what he called "sensory memory", which in a way or another will affect one's behavior. Jean-Paul Sartre termed self-deception as "mauvaise foi" which means "bad faith". Sartre claims that 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 bad faith should be understood as a lie to oneself. On the contrary to Freud, Sartre sees that one should be aware of this lie, which will affect the consciousness. Herbert Fingarette states that we are engaged in the world in a way or another, and our decision to avow or disavow this engagement depends upon the threat or the reward that our apprehension poses toward ourselves. Other philosophers such as William Kingdon Clifford, Bishop Joseph Butler, Adam Smith, and Immanuel Kant tackle the effect of self- deception on our moral lives, which in a way or another enables us to hide our motivation from ourselves. In 2000, Robert Trivers, an American anthropologist, crystalizes a scientific theory of self- deception. In his article "The Elements of a Scientific Theory of SelfDeception", he identifies self-deception as an "active misrepresentation of reality to the conscious mind" (114). He goes on to say that mind contains conscious and unconscious, and information that is true is misrepresented to be false. Consequently, both true and false information is stored in mind. As long as a person deceives himself, the true information is stored in unconscious mind while the false information is stored in the conscious mind. A person, thus, biases to the false information. He writes "True and false information is simultaneously stored in an organism with a bias towards the true information's being stored in the unconscious mind, the false in the conscious"(Trivers, 2000:116). And, this way of organizing knowledge is oriented towards an outside observer, who sees first the conscious mind and its productions and only later spots true information hidden in the other's unconscious mind. The following figure explains Trivers's point of view. Fig 1 Information that meets the eye True (T) and false (F) information is simultaneously stored within an organism, but with a bias: the true is stored in the unconscious mind (shaded section), the better to deceive an on-looker (eye) (Trivers, 2000:116) In 2011, Trivers cooperate with William von Hippel, an Australian psychologist, to set a theory on self -deception. Von Hippel& Trivers' theory is about treating selfdeception as information processing biases that give priority to welcome information over unwelcome information. They believe that the individual's goal is the real motivation behind his bias. They say: "From our perspective, biases in information processing can be considered self–deceptive only when they favor welcome over unwelcome information in a manner that reflects the individual's goals" (Von Hippel & Trivers , 2011 :2). In their theory, Von Hippel & Trivers attributes Self- deception to five different psychological processes. The following figure shows these five processes. 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Fig 2 Processes of Information bias This paper attempts to apply these five information processing biases to both Naguib Mahfouz's Essayed AbdelGawad and Amina in Palace Walk (1956) and Arthur Miller's Joe Killer and Kate Killer in All My Sons (1947). Those parents want to keep their familial life. Each one deceives himself/ herself through these processes to achieve this goal. 2. Literature Review Many literary works has tackled the works of Naguib Mahfouz especially the Cairo Trilogy. In 2012, a paper titled "Male Dominance and Female Resistance in Naguib Mahfouz's Selected Novels: A Case Study" is done by Ali Saleh Ali AlHossini and Dr. Namratatha M. Another paper titled "Spaces of the Oppressed A Spatial Reading of Najib Mahfuz' Palace Walk" is done by Hazem Ziada. Many PhDs and MAs attempted his works such as an MA titled "The Quotidian in Naguib Mahfouz's The Cairo Trilogy" is done by Kenneth Strickland in 2015. Another MA titled "Modern Interpretations of Gender in Naguib Mahfouz's Cairo Trilogy" is done by Maryam Hassan Elshall in 2006. Not only Naguib Mahfouz's Palace Walk, but also Arthur Miller's All My Sons have been studied. "The Role of the Mother in Miller's All My Sons" is a paper done by Massarra Majid Ibrahim. "All My Sons as Precursor in Arthur Miller's Dramatic World" is another paper studies All My Sons by Masahiro Oikawa. In 2015 Alaeddin NAHVI writes a paper entitled "All My Sons – The Tragic Conflict between Family Loyalties". Moreover, there is a literary search that compares Palace Walk to Miller's Death of a Salesman not to All My Sons. This paper is titled " Suffering wives: Miller's Linda and Mahfouz's Amina" by Atef Abdallah Abouelmaaty. Concerning the concept of self- deception, there are two papers in which the concept of self –deception has been applied to literary researches. In a paper entitled "The Psychology of Self-Deception as Illustrated in Literary Characters" by Christopher Frost, Michael Arfken, and Dylan W. Brock, the writers have studied three literary works; The Fall by Albert Camus, Billy Budd, Sailor by Herman Melville, and Mother Night by Kurt Vonnegut. Another paper titled "Selfdeception with Othello and other Literature" by Rebekah Murphy which is written on 10 September 2012 covers the role of self-deception in Othello. Hence, no literary search has tackled the evolution and psychology of self-deception by William von Hippel and Robert Trivers. And, no literary search has 144 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 applied this theory to these literary works; Naguib Mahfouz's Palace Walk and Arthur Miller's All My Sons. 3. The application of processes of information bias to Naguib Mahfouz's Palace Walk and Arthur Miller's All My Sons. 3.1. Biased information search Biased information search is the first process of information bias. This process is classified into three categories; amount of searching, selective searching, and selective attention. 3.1.1. Amount of searching Everyday people pass through many situations in which they tend to avoid more information search lest they may encounter information that does not go with their goals. A sort of self-deception is information avoidance that can be termed as "aphorism" i.e. “What I don’t know can’t hurt me” (Von Hippel & Trivers, 2011: 8). People are able to prevent themselves from learning the whole truth. In Naguib Mahfouz's Palace Walk, Amina is a subject of this kind of self- deception. She behaves almost ignorant of her husband's nights out. All what she wants to know that he spends nights with his friends drinking wine. She does not try to search for further unwelcome information i.e. what other pleasures he practices. In this way Amina does not tell herself the whole truth. For her the preferable partial truth is the moments of his return from his partying when he is drunk and talking warmly to her. She used to enjoy these rare moments of drunken tenderness. 3.1.2 Selective searching Information search can be biased in the type of information gathered; people are capable of searching for welcome information, but they are incapable of searching for unwelcome information that will lead to unsecure feeling. Thus, people are selective in their searching. In Arthur Miller's All My Sons, Kate is an example of this biased selective searching process. When she hears about George's and Ann's visit, she unwelcomes this visit. She was afraid lest they- after all these three years- might be informed the truth from their father and might uncover the secret of Keller's responsibility for dispatching the faulty cylinder. She is afraid of avenging their father upon Keller, especially after George had become a lawyer. She has potential awareness of unwanted information, yet it is just in one case people are ready to hear unwelcome truth. "It appears that people are often able to avoid telling themselves the whole truth by searching out those bits of truth that they want to hear ,but they are also willing to face uncomfortable truths when feeling secure (Albarracin& Mitchell 2004: Kumashiro &Sedikides 2005)" (Von Hippel & Trivers, 2011 :9). That is what actually Kate does. She tells George: "None of us changed, George. We all love you." (Miller, 1961: 145) .Trying to feel secure, she treats George in highly kindly way. 3.1.3. Selective attention Selective attention is the third category in biased information search. Even when both true and false information are obtainable and accessible, people tend to pay a selective attention to welcome information. Von Hippel & Trivers state "When 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 information is perceptually available and need not be actively discovered, people can still bias their encoding by selectively attending to aspects of the available information that they would prefer to be true" (Von Hippel & Trivers, 2011:9). In Naguib Mahfouz's Palace Walk, Amina's reaction to Zynab's discussion of getting divorce of Yassin is very attentionally selective. Yassin used to spend his nights out following a life of lust and spending much time and money on drink and prostitutes, a behavior that completely resembles his father's Essayed AbdelGawad. Zynab feels uncomfortable with her husband's intolerable behavior. Upon finding him in compromising position with her maid, Nur, Zynab asks for divorce. Actually, Amina thinks that Zynab has stirred up a quite dispensable excessive commotion by drawing attention to her husband's infidelity and adultery. Amina sees "nothing strange in the enjoyment Yassin derived from his freedom" (Mahfouz, 1992:335). In Amina's opinion, Zynab is "arrogating to her self-masculine prerogatives" (Mahfouz, 1992:311). Although Amina suffers the same way Zynab does, she is selective in her attention. She absolutely overcomes informational content in service of her emotional goal. This attentional bias clearly implicates potential awareness. She believes that a virtuous woman of a good reputation is the one who has a husband. It is preferable to be naïve and ignorant, to remain blinkered, and to be interested in her husband's social life than she spared the shame of a divorce. In her selective attention, she is avoiding telling herself the whole truth. On the other hand, Kate believes that Larry's survival as a lie- is the only thread which Joe's life depends on. She tries to save the family's reputation clear out of remorse. She is completely aware that Joe is responsible for shipping faulty cylinder heads, an action for which Steve, his partner, is in jail and Joe escaped responsibility pretending ignorance and illness. According to Jean Paul Sartre, Kate is self-deceptive that is she has a bad faith "mauvais fois" as Sartre terms it .Jean Paul Sartre says that "the person who is guilty of bad faith bases his decisions and actions upon an error" (Sartre, 1948: 50-51). She stands unable to take a decision. She is neither able to confess that Joe is guilty for dispatching the faulty cylinder , nor able to declare Larry's death because she believes that declaring Larry's death is a quite confession of Joe's crime. Kate is desperately trying to freeze the moment of Larry's disappearance. That is why she pays selective attention to meaningless things to make out of them meaningful. She reprimands Joe for planting Larry's memorial apple tree a little soon after being informed of the falling of his plane as if everyone was in a hurry to bury him. Yet, when the wind blows it down, Kate starts weeping over this damage. Chris: Mother Mother![ [she looks into his face] The wind below it down. What significance has that got? What are you talking about? Mother, please… don't go through it again, will you! It's no good, it doesn't accomplish anything. I've been thinking, y, know? maybe we ought to put our minds into forgetting him. Mother: That's the third time you've said that this week. Chris: Because it's not right: we never took up our lives again, we're like at a railroad station waiting for a train that never comes in. (Miller, 1961: 106) Kate is trying to cherish illusory ideas against existing facts. When self-deceptive "people are led to feel low levels of personal control, they perceive illusory patterns in random configuration" (Von Hippel & Trivers, 2011:11). This explains why Kate 14 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 connects the destruction of the apple tree with Ann's coming. Then, she connects the two incidents with finding Larry's baseball glove after all these years. She says: This month is [Larry's] birthday; his tree blows down, Annie comes, Everything that happened seems to be coming back. I was just down in the cellar, and what do I stumble over? His baseball glove. I haven't seen it in a century. (Miller, 1961:104) Not only Kate but also Keller selectively pays attention to aspects of accessible information that he would prefer to be true. He assumes on the power of money. He rhetorically inquires: Who worked for nothing in that war? When they work for nothing, I work for nothing. Did they ship a gun or a truck outa Detroit before they got their price? Is that clear? It's dollars and cents, nickels and dimes; war and peace, it's nickels and dimes, what's clear? Half the goddam country is gotta go if I go. (Miller, 1961: 95) What Joe is doing is a selective attention. He is trying to draw their attention to the bad half of the population who work for money. He believes that he is just one like all the American citizens. He does not pay attention to those young men who were fighting in the service of their motherland. Thus, "when people faced almost certain disappointment, they directed their attention to information that would make their upcoming rejection more palatable" (Von Hippel & Trivers, 2011:9). He seeks agreeable acceptance of his selective welcomed belief. Essayed AbdelGawad is also a subject of selective attention. When Yassin is caught trying to sexually violate Umm Hanafi, the house keeper, his father is angry not because his son's illicit behavior, but because the woman is old and unattractive. His selective attention services what he aims at, what he believes and what he wants others to believe. Man is free to do whatever he wants to do just because he is a man. AbdelGawad is sacrificing informational content, which is the action of sexual harassment, in service of his goal, which is the empowerment of male. Actually, all these characters pay selective attention to what they want to seewhich is for them the welcomed information- and want others to believe in what they see in a very self-deceptive way. 3.2. Biased interpretation Biased interpretation is the second process of information bias. This process goes a step farther than the process of biased information search. That is to say, to bias toward welcome over unwelcome information, people tend to control the amount of information searched for that will satisfies their goal. And, if people compulsory forced to search for information, they tend to selective searching in favor in their belief. Moreover, if people are faced with unwelcome information, they tend to pay selective attention to what they believe in. Indeed, in the process of biased interpretation, self-deceptive people go a step further. People are able to interpret data relying on their motivational and mental resources. They are able "to encounter a mixed bag of evidence but nevertheless walk away with their original beliefs intact and potentially even strengthened"(Von Hippel & Trivers, 2011:9). It is a selective skepticism. 14 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 In Palace Walk, Essayed AbdelGawad accustomed himself as considering Amina as a wife, a housekeeper, and a mother who is just responsible for catering his children and no more. Looking at Amina as lacking beauty standards, not competing with his mistress, and praising her for nothing but "type of food she prepared and cooked to perfection", Essayed AbdelGawad is a self-deceptive man (Mahfouz, 1992:14). He is encountered with a mixed bag of evidence; Amina is totally a woman, but he doubts the evidence that does not go hand in hand with his mental and motivational beliefs as he is "infatuated with feminine beauty in all its flesh coquetry and elegance" (Mahfouz, 1992:398). Thus, in a very skeptical way, he belittles her as a woman whose beauty and mind are incomplete. Consequently, interpreting evidence biasedly, he prevents himself from learning the whole truth. 3.3. Misremembering Even if people get unsolicited information and even if they accept it at the time of encoding, this does not assures that they will repossess it far along. "Rather, information that is inconsistent with their preferences may simply be forgotten or misremembered later as preference-consistent or neutral"(Von Hippel & Trivers 2011:9). People are not only able to forget what handicaps achieving their goals, but they also tend to remember only what satisfy theirs. Consequently, people are able to prevent themselves from acquiring the whole reality. Amina never forgets what happened in her first year of marriage as she utters her opinion expressing her objection on her husband's nights out. He had grabbed her by the ears and shouted: "I'm a man. I'm the one who commands and forbids. I will not accept any criticism of my behavior. All I ask of you to obey me. Don't force me to discipline you." (Mahfouz, 1992: 8). Her self-enhancing bias is very clear in another recall. As her father was a scholar of Islam, she lives and behaves according to the perceptions of Islam. She remembers nothing of her father's sayings but "A woman, who at the moment of death enjoys the full approval of her husband, will find her place in Paradise" (El Saadawi, 1989:140). She remembers what assures her belief that is a good Muslim woman and a dutiful wife is the one who caters to all her husband's needs regardless of the circumstances. In this way, she is a self-deceptive woman. Furthermore, Amina remembers Haniya, Essayed AbdelGawad's first wife. Haniya sees no harm in visiting her father occasionally, but Essayed AbdelGawad furiously objects on these frequent visits, preventing her from getting out of the home. When Haniya "displayed some resistance to his will…Essayed Ahmed had grown angry and had attempted to restrain her ,at first by scolding her and then by violent beatings"(Mahfouz, 1992: 115). Refusing to deceive herself, to scarify all rights of freedom equality, honor and respect, and to secure her husband and son, Haniya get divorced. Tragically, her son, Yassin, blames his mother for being a disobedient woman who refused to be physically abused. Amina remember Haniya's model in a selective way as if she is trying to convince herself with a belief that she is a good mother who is ready to scarify all her rights to secure her husband, children ,and family which is her preference and goal. According to Von Hippel & Trivers, "people have potential awareness of both positive and negative information about the self. Thus, people's memories appear to be self –enhancing, sometimes containing information that is biased to be consistent with preferences" (2011: 10). That is why in Arthur Miller's All My Sons, When 14 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Keller is faced by his son of his crime, he defends himself; remembering in a very biased way how hardly he becomes an owner of a factory. He tells Kate about the hardships he had gone through when he was young; starting his independent business life away from his home early since he was ten. Lamenting the welfare life he affords his children, he says "I should put him [Chris] out when he was ten like I was put out, and make him earn his keep. Then he'd know how a buck is made in this world". He goes on to say "you lay out in five minutes, what could I do, let them take forty years, let them take my life away?" (Miller, 1961: 195). As the third process of information bias, misremembering prevent people them from seeing the whole truth. 3.4. Rationalization Von Hippel & Trivers state that evading telling himself/ herself the whole truth by justifying the intentions behind his /her behavior is rationalization. They claim:" It is still possible to avoid telling oneself the whole truth by reconstructing or rationalizing the motives behind the original behavior to make it more socially acceptable" (Von Hippel & Trivers 2011:10). Actually, when people are obligatory prescribed to maintain both truth and lies in working memory, they suffer cognitive load. Self-deception provides a way to avoid this cognitive load. To the degree that deceivers can convince themselves that their deception is indeed true and they are no longer required to keep up the real facts of the case in mind while they focus on promulgating the fiction Essayed AbdelGawad tries to rationalize his affairs with the so-called entertainers. That is why when shaykh Mutawalli, a spiritual advisor, confronts him about his womanizing behavior, referring that it is allowed to have more than wife like prophet Mohammed, Essayed AbdelGawad speaks: Don't forget, Shaykh Mutawalli, that the professional women entertainers of today are the slave girls of yesterday, whose purchase and sale God made legal. More than anything, God is forgiving and merciful (Mahfouz 1992:146). Essayed AbdelGawad builds upon shaykh Mutawalli speech in a hypocritical trial to legalize his behavior. His words could not be interpreted but just in one way that he seeks to eliminate a cognitive load that he suffers. That is to say, he has two types of content simultaneously in his own working memory. What he is doing is a clear trial of suppressing true information which is having affairs with women which is a religiously and socially unaccepted behavior and a trial of promulgating false information which is God is merciful and forgivable of his sexual conducts. Pretending that he is walking in Prophet εohammed's foot and rationalizing Sunnah and the Holy Quran to justify his illicit behavior is a clear- cut trial to alleviate his cognitive load. It is not only Essayed AbdelGawad who tries to rationalize his wrong deeds, but also Joe Keller rationalize shipping twenty defective cylinder heads for the military aircraft, an action that lead to the death of twenty pilots . Joe Keller safeguards himself with false assumptions. In his confrontation with Chris his son, he tells him and Kate that he had done this for the sake of his family. He declares "Chris…Chris, I did it for you …For you! A business for you ")Miller 1961:85). Later on, he highlights the value of his relation to his son as a great defense line against his crime, pronouncing "I'm his father and he's my son, and if there's something bigger than that I'll put a bullet in my head!" (Miller 1961: 163). According to Von Hippel & Trivers, Joe is trying to make 141 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 people feel inclined to accept his view. That family is certainly important, and man must strive to make as much money as he can for the prosperity and welfare of his family. No man can be happy if he cannot afford reasonable comfort for his family. Joe is suffering between the reality that he knows and the stories and lies that he try to convince himself and others with. Again like Essayed AbdelGawad, Joe suffers a cognitive load. Yet, he is trying to avoid this cognitive load to the extent that he can convince himself and the others that his lies are true. "They are no longer required to maintain the real facts of the case in mind while they focus on promulgating the fiction. Rather by believing the fiction that they are expressing to others, they can free their mind to concentrate on other matters" (Von Hippel & Trivers 2011:4). 3.5. Convincing the self that a lie is true Convincing the self that a lie is true is a standard type of self-deception. In this sort of self-deception as Von Hippel & Trivers assume, the person believes in the lie that he is telling others, given that situations that motivate lying to the self typically motivate lying to others. In εiller's All My Sons, Kate lives a lie that her husband is responsible for the death of her son as he was one of the twenty killed pilots. She believes that freezing δarry’s death is protecting her family’s reputation. Kate along the play gives situations in which she is striving to keep up the lie that δarry is alive. She reprimands Joe for planting δarry's memorial apple tree a little soon as if everyone was in a hurry to bury him. Yet, when the wind blows it down, Kate starts weeping over this damage Chris: Mother, Mother! [She looks into his face] the wind below it down. What significance has that got? What are you talking about? Mother, please...don't go through it again, will you! It's no good, it doesn't accomplish anything. I've been thinking, y, know? maybe we ought to put our minds into forgetting him. εother: that's the third time you've said that this week. Chris: Because it's not right:; we never took up our lives again, we're like at a railroad station waiting for a train that never comes in (Miller 1961:105) Convincing herself and all those around her that δarry is alive, she tells Joe that she will kill herself if δarry does not come back )εiller 19461: 104). Joe says that "she is still dreaming about him ]δarry[ again. She's walking around at night" )εiller 1961: 151). The details of nightmare she had about δarry implies the lie that she trying to convince herself with. Mother: I was first asleep, and –[ Raising her arm over the audience] Remember the way he [Larry] used to fly how past the house when he was training? When we used to see his place in the cockpit going by? That's the way I saw him. Only high up, way, way up, where the clouds are. He was so real I could reach out and touch him. And suddenly he started to fall. And crying to me…Mom, Mom! I could hear him like he was in the room. Mom!...it was his voice! If I could touch him I knew I could stop him, if I could only [Breaks off, allowing her outstretched hand to fall] I woke up and it was funny. The wind…it 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 was like the roaring of his engine. )εiller, 1961: 105). ]Emphasis mine[ εoreover, she asks both Chris and Joe to act, pronouncing "I want you to act like he's coming back. Both of you" )εiller 1961: 105) . Addressing Joe specifically , Kate says: "Believe with me, Joe ,I can't stand it all alone… you above all have got to believe, you" )εiller 1961: 107) ] emphasis mine[. Urging Joe and Chris to act and to believe in δarry's coming back and describing how her son fall from the sky indicates that she knows that her son is dead and that Joe is the one to blame for his death . Kate believes that δarry's survival – as a lie- is the only thread upon which Joe's life depends. Kate explains to Chris "You don't realize how people can hate, Chris, they can hate so much they'll tear the world to pieces" )εiller, 1961: 85). She tries to save the family's status and reputation. Joe Keller is just like Kate convinces himself with a lie that he must behave in a very pragmatic way regardless of moralities and norms. In point of fact, Joe shields himself by asserting that his personal beliefs and values are the principles of the world today in which he lives. He says that those who used to call him "Murderer" are the same ones who play with him. He says "Every Saturday night the whole gang is playin' poker in this arbor. All the ones who yelled murderer takin' my money now" (Miller, 1961:76). Norms and ideals do no longer exist. Joe Keller lives a lie that money has a power that gives you irresistible prestige and makes people forget indulgence in crimes. With money he can afford welfare for his family. He lives a lie that everyman who is keen on his family is more preoccupied with making a living for his family than with his obligation and responsibility towards others. Consequently, Joe convinces himself that he is just one like all men possessing an inclination to estimate themselves and their families. Essayed AbdelGawad lives a lie that he must be blindly obeyed and nothing but be obeyed in a domineering way as long as he is a male. εahfouz brilliantly portrays "nothing was so like his lust as his body, since both were huge and powerful, qualities that bring to mind roughness savagery", such a portrayal assures and deepens the lie that he believe in )εahfouz, 1992: 100). He thinks he can, thus, control and protect his family. As being a patriarchal and conservative husband , Essayed AbdelGawad neither allows his wife nor his own daughter to leave the house claiming that "houses have been for women and the outside world for men"(Mahfouz, 1992:150 ). Essayed Ahmed AbdelGawad was" extreme in his insistence on retaining traditional standards for his family"(Mahfouz, 1992: 200). Zynab sarcastically observes "I've never seen a house like yours where what's licit is forbidden" (Mahfouz, 1992: 300). When Essayed AbdelGawad sets off for his yearly journey to Port Said, Amina is very excited about the freedom she would enjoy "safe from their guardian's eye" (Mahfouz, 1992:167). That is why when Yassin suggests that she seizes the opportunity of Essayed Ahmed AbdelGawad's absence and visit the shrine of AlHusayn, Amina welcomes the idea and goes to the shrine of AlHusayn. Upon discovering his wife's visit, Essayed AbdelGawad is shocked as his pride is wounded by his wife's transgression of his order and he suffers an inner struggle. Mahfouz writes: His mental struggle had begun the moment the woman tearfully confessed her offense. At the first instant he had not believed his ears, as he started to recover from the shock, he had become aware of the loathsome truth that was an affront to his pride and dignity because of his deep anxiety for this woman. (Mahfouz, 1992: 220) 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Such a struggle reflects how he maintains both truth and lies in his working memory. As a self-deceiver, he keeps "fact and fiction in mind simultaneously to ensure that the former is hidden and the later is supported … to the degree that deceivers can convince themselves that their deception is indeed true" (Von Hippel & Trivers, 2011:4). In a self- deceived way, Essayed AbdelGawad convinces himself that Amina must be punished to restore control and personal honor. He is unwilling to forgive her If he forgave her and yielded to the appeal of affection, which he longed to do, then his prestige, honor, personal standards and set of values would be comprised. He would lose control of his family, and the bonds holding it together would dissolve. He could not lead them unless he did so with firmness and rigor. In short, if he forgave her, he would no longer be Ahmed AbdelGawad but some other person he could never agree to become. (Mahfouz, 1992: 210) Even his daughters, who are prisoned in the house and have nothing to do but waiting for marriage, do not have the right to choose their husbands. He believes that he protects them and his honor from the outside world that is filled with filthy men. Thus, Essayed AbdelGawad is no longer required to keep the real facts in mind while he is focusing on executing fiction. Given these situations, Essayed AbdelGawad is motivated lying to the self and typically motivated lying to others. Amina is not much happier than the other parents. She convinces herself with a lie, upon which she behaves and reacts to the whole situations. She believes that "true manhood, tyranny, and staying out till after midnight were common characteristics of a single entity" (Mahfouz, 1992:4-5). She believes that her husband is not only the breadwinner of the family but also the only mind, the only protector, and the only form for secure for her and her family. When he speaks, she lowers her eyes in as an indication of amenability. She dare not to sit down beside him , to even have a friendly speech with him ,to utter her inner thoughts to him, or to negates her own true personality; she always says "My opinion is the same as yours, sir, I have no opinion of my own" (Mahfouz, 1992: 156). Through situations, she is motivated to deceive herself. As her husband is used to coming back home drunk, having enjoyed wine, women, and song, and scolding her with abused words for the most trivial reasons, she learned to become silent, moreover, to welcome him smilingly, and "never forget to implore God to pardon his sin and forgive him")εahfouz, 1992 :10). She obeys him "without reservation or condition" (Mahfouz, 1992 :10), to the degree that She convinces herself that jealousy would lead to nothing but punishment and troubles for her and consequently for her family. She says to herself that jealousy: "was no different from the other difficulties troubling her life. To accept them was an inevitable and binding decree. Her only means of combining them was, she found, to call on patience and rely on her inner strength, the one resource in the struggle against disagreeable things"(Mahfouz, 1992:6). Even when she tells her mother about what she feels and go through, her mother replies "your father had many wives. Thanks our lord that you remain his only wife", a reply that deepens her self-deceptive way of thinking and reacting to situations (Mahfouz, 1992: 301). Thus, Amina is a selfdeceiver. 4. Conclusion 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Naguib εahfouz’s Essayed AbdelGawad and Amina, and Arthur εiller’s Joe Keller and Kate are parents who have one goal which is keeping and protecting their families. Each one of them has his/her own way to reach one’s goal. Each one of them convinces himself/herself that his/her way is the only way to achieve his/her goal. In this way they are deceiving themselves to reduce a cognitive load. In All My Sons, Kate believes that freezing δarry’s death is protecting her husband’s and family’s name and reputation. Joe Keller lives the lie of the power of money. Believing that with money he can afford welfare life to his family, he collects money at any cost; even if the price is the death of twenty pilots and the imprisonment of his partner and friend. In Palace Walk, Essayed AbdelGawad lives a lie of being a male who has the right not only of dictatorship, which is for him the only way to control his family, but also the right of amusing himself in whatever way . Amina lives a lie that the εuslim woman should obey her husband to be able to keep on her familial life. δiving such lies, they give priority to welcome over unwelcome information in very biased processes. Applying VH&T processes of bias on these parents explain their unconscious motives behind their behavior, a behavior that consequently achieve social and psychological advantages for each one. 5. References Abbotson, Susan C.W.) 2007). Critical Companion to Arthur Miller: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work. New York: Facts on File, Inc.,. Abdallah, A. Abouelmaaty. )Sep 2015).Suffering wives: εiller’s δinda and εahfouz’s Amina. Journal of δanguage and Cultural Education. Vol. 3, Issue 3. Chance, Z. εichael.I.Norton )2015).The What and Why of Self-Deception. COPSYC http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc. El Saadawi, N. )1989): The Hidden Face of Eve, translated and edited by Dr. Sherif Hetata, δondon: Zed Books. Frost, C., Arfken, ε., Brock, Dylan W. The Psychology of Self-Deception as Illustrated in Literary Characters. Janus Head: Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature, Continental Philosophy, Phenomenological Psychology, and the Art http://www.janushead.org/4-2/frost.cfm Ethics and Self-Deception. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://www.iep.utm.edu/ Hassan, ε. Elshall. )2006). Modern Interpretations of Gender in Naguig Maahfouz'Cairo Triology. ε.A. University of Florida. Hesse, Herman. )1992).Siddartha, Demian,and other writing. Ed. Egon Schwarz. New York: continuum. δawrence, Mark .)2014). Prince of Fools. New York : Ace Books. εahfouz, Naguib. )1992). The Cairo Trilogy.Trans. William εaynard Hutchins, Olive E.Kenny and Anglele Botros Samman. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. εiller, Arthur.) 1961). A View from the Bridge & All My Sons. New York: Penguin Books δtd. NAHVI , A. )2015) .“All My Sons”- The Tragic Conflict between Family Loyalties and Social Responsibilities. Cumhuriyet Science Journal. Vol 36, No 3 . 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Oersen, Sheridene Barbara )2005). The representation of women in Four of Naguib Mahfouz's realist novels: Palace Walk, Palace of Desire, Sugar Street, and Midaq Alley. University of the Western Cape. Oikawa,ε. )2002). All My Sons as Precursor in Arthur Miller's Dramatic World. Ritsumeikan Annual Review of International Studies.Vol.1. 99-120. Saleh, A. Al-Hossini. Namratha ε.)June2012). Male Dominance and Female Resistance in Naguib Mahfouz’s selected Novels: A case Study. International Journal. of Physical and Social Sciences .Vol. 2, Issue 6. http://www.ijmra.us Sartre, Jean Paul. )1948). Existentialism and Humanism. Translated by Philip εariet. US: εathuen. Scanlan , Tom. )1978). Family, Drama and American Dreams. Westport, CT: Greenwood. Trivers, R. )2000). "The Elements of a Scientific Theory of Self-Deception" Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences .907:114-31. William von Hippel & Robert Trivers. )2011). The Evolution and Psychology of SelfDeception. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34, 1–56. Ziada, H. Spaces of the Oppressed_A Spatial Reading of Najīb Maĥfūz’ Palace Walk. http://www.academia.edu/7573598/. 114 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Decoding the politics of ‘Right to Education’ in India through the Prism of the Disabled Anayika Chopra [The] general education of all children without exception at the expense of the State – an education which is equal for all and continues until the individual is capable of emerging as an independent member of society…. would be only an act of justice…for clearly, every man has the right to the fullest development of his abilities and society wrongs individuals twice over when it makes ignorance a necessary consequence of poverty. Frederick Engels (February 8, 1845) This paper looks at the contemporary developments in the sphere of educational policy that has happened in the Indian context in recent past specifically since the amendment providing the possibility of home- based education to the disabled children. The paper argues that this development cannot be seen in isolation and as a particular, stand alone moment in education policy history of the country but is rather a continuation of the absent will of the Indian state to educate each and every child irrespective of their abilities, class, caste or gender affiliations. It all began when the Indian state failed to implement the Article 45 of the Directive Principles of State Policy and it continued through its failure to implement the Common School System, introduction of informal education system and then by enacting a law that makes the right provisional by not committing to how to educate every child. This paper looks at this orientation of the Indian state through the prism of the elements of disability in the RTE Act. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, which came into being on 1st April 2010, has been a major milestone in ensuring the critical right to free and compulsory education for all children between the age 6-14 in India. But millions of children with disabilities got left out in the Act. Children with disabilities, including children with very high support needs, are equal holders of this fundamental right. But today through the proposed amendments to the RTE, Act 2009, this fundamental right of the children is being watered down and instead of school, ‘home’ is being offered as a legitimate, alternative option for the education of a child with very high support needs. The Indian state has not only been unable to implement the right to education sincerely, but has nonetheless transformed the character of education, deviating from the ideals. “The recent programme of SSA, EGS and AIE, have implied a second –grade teaching for children of the poor, Dalits, disabled and girls. The ‘alternative’ programmes designate them as their ‘targets’ because they are the most needy ones due to their poor resource base. It is an irony that despite considering them so, the programmes deliver to them a substandard education”)Kumar 2006: 38). Why does the inclusion of RTE in Fundamental Rights not been able to ensure equality in educational access to the disabled? It is primarily this question that 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 the present paper aims to address. But to do this I would like to place this present debate on disabled’s education in India within the larger milieu on how disability has been perceived. UNDERSTANDING THE DISCOURSE ON DISABILITY IN INDIA Western conceptualizations of disability have played a key role in shaping the ways in which the discourse on disability in India has developed, and which has been mediated by the socio- cultural and religious attitudes of society as well as of the policy makers (Ghosh, 2012). However, the disability activists and academics in the West have increasingly advocated a nuanced understanding of disability and impairment as impairment also is created, defined and understood within social contexts (Shakespeare 2004). Thus the relationship between impairment and disability becomes very complex as impairments are multiple and are seen to impinge differently upon disabled people at different points of time, depending on a host of psychological, social and environmental factors that are all external to the biomedical condition (Silvers, Wasserman & Mahowald 1998). Thus the ways in which bodies interrelate with socially engineered environments, which include the natural environment, the built environment, culture, the economic system, the political system, and psychological factors and conform to social expectations determine the varying degrees of disability (Garland-Thomson 1997). Marks (1999) defines disability as 'the complex relationship between the environment, body and psyche, which serves to exclude certain people from becoming full participants in interpersonal, social, cultural, economic and political affairs'. This definition of disability avoids the usual individual/social binary, and insists that disability does not reside within a particular body or environment, but rather is an embodied relationship. People with different forms of disability experience their bodies and negotiate their identities in different ways, as forms of resistance and the struggle for bodily control, independence and emancipation are embodied. Disability therefore becomes relative, its impact changing according to type and degree of impairment, socio-economic status, gender, social and geographical locations etc. Disability as a cultural category that highlights human variations unites a highly heterogeneous group of people, who share only one common characteristic - that of being considered abnormal (Garland-Thomson 1997). Disability signals that the body cannot be universalized as it is shaped by history, defined by its particularity and may be at odds with the environment. When we talk about disability the physical attributes of a perfect body often come to mind. When we see a person with missing limbs, or a person who cannot see or hear then we tend to group them with others whose body and bodily behavior vary from the usual and give them the rank of the disabled. Societies reaction to the disabled body varies from pity, disgust and abhorrence and claims to “normality”. Questions ranging from how does one look at the body, what does a perfect body mean, who has the right to speak for the body have often been raised. Feminism in the work of Judith Butler and Susan Bordo has challenged understandings of the body as biologically given and fixed.They argue that human body is both culturally and historically specific (Evans 2002:1). The idea of the body 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 as fixed also stands challenged when one looks at the diversity of cultural practices relating to body across the world. However every culture in its own specific world view has treated bodies as fixed and defines it unilinearally. Hence in the end body remains a site of contestation. Evans in her work Real Bodies argues that body /bodies that were once seen as fixed are now seen as less certainly defined. It is this idea of fixated definition that is relevant to the analysis of disability because it would challenge the notion of a “normal” body. Thus, it seems impossible to speak about the nature of the body or take for granted the body as a fixed category. This argument can further be strengthened by taking into account the advancement in medical technology, which has given us the ability to alter and negotiate with our bodies. While this right is given, the trend is to follow a pattern that the ‘society’ likes –examples being ‘nose job’ or taking of sliming capsules because fat body defies the notion of ‘beauty’. But then a question can be raised that why does one have to alter their body? The question of altering the body acquires complexity the body gets embedded in a socio-economic dynamics that changes from one historical moment to another. Whether it is the body of a male or a female both are encoded with social meanings. There is a need to examine the different ways in which male and female bodies have been constructed so as to recognize the impact of social expectations on the body (Evan 2002:5). When talking about the body of the disabled, can one separate the ‘body’ from disability is a claim that has recently come up with a lot of debate. The reason why this debate has emerged is because of the inability of many scholars to understand the meaning of the term ‘disability’ itself. The word disability is generally understood in relation to the term impairment. The term disability is defined as the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organization which takes little or no account of people who have physical impairments thus excluding them from the mainstream of social activities. Impairment on the other hand is defined as the lacking of all or part of a limb or having a defective limb, organ of the body. This debate has given rise to the social model of disability as pointed out by Carol Thomas. The social model of disability proposes that the relatively non-impaired majority socially oppress people with marked physical, sensory or intellectual impairments (Thomas 2002:68). One can, then, define disability as the socially oppressive response of the nonimpaired to the impaired in society. The ‘disabled’ when introduced to the social model of disability tends to see the source of the problem lying outside their bodies. This leads to a very valid question which is do we see impairment as concerning itself with essential biological differences between bodies or whether one should see it in terms of culturally constructed differences without any ‘real’ biological foundations? When analyzing the debate on the social model of disability it becomes important to visit the work by Paul Abberley who has argued “social processes and practices either directly create impairments by damaging the body or produce higher levels of impairments in society by enabling people with previous unsustainable impairments to stay alive for longer”)Abberley 1987:9). Building on the above literature on the social model of disability, one could add the dimension of gender to further strengthen the debate on body and disability. As mentioned above there is a need to examine the different ways in which male and female bodies have been constructed to recognize the impact of social expectations on the body. For a woman her body image directly influences her self-image. Women as 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 we all know are considered inferior to men and this fact is further authenticated when we see a woman who is physically disabled. Disabled women are not only more likely to internalize society’s rejection but they are more likely than disabled men to identify themselves as ‘disabled’. The disabled male possesses a relatively positive self-image and is more likely to identify as ‘male’ rather than as disabled. Disabled women live in bodies which do not always work and often defy the dominant notion of ‘normal experiences’ )Begum 1992:67). Women in relation to men have often been perceived as more intimately connected to their bodies. So if a disabled women starts losing respect for her own body and internalizes the negative messages that label her body as ‘defective’ and ‘undesirable’, then her body also becomes a source of pain and embarrassment for her. Disability thus becomes the attribution of corporeal deviance - not as a property of bodies but as a product of cultural rules about what bodies should be or do (Shakespeare 1996). Disability is also experienced in, on and through the body, as impairment is interpreted in terms of personal and cultural narratives that help to constitute its meaning. Therefore disability is seen as culturally, spatially and historically variable, swayed by various social, economic and political determinants that affect the individual experiences of people with differing degrees of impairment. Recent attempts to theorize disability have however emphasized that any conceptualization of disability must take into account other bases of identity like gender, race and class and the way in which these identities interact with the disabled status to exert simultaneous oppression over people with disabilities. As disability is a socially created category, its meaning varies according to other systems of power and inequality. Feminist disability scholars (Ghai; Addlakha), in specific, have argued that the homogenization of the experience of disability has projected the experiences of disabled men as representative of all disabled people, ignoring gendered societal standards that influence and construct cultural notions of masculinity and femininity and shape the development of identities of men and women with disabilities. In this sense, disabled women are doubly disadvantaged. Their socio-economic, cultural and political deprivation combined with an oppressive definition of ‘normal’ body subjects them to inconceivable pain and misery (Ghosh,2012). Society and its norms play a very crucial role in shaping opinions regarding the disabled and their place in the social set up. But then the question arises as how does one define the word ‘norm’ or how does one conceptualise this? According to Foucault in his work Discipline and Punish ‘Norm refers to an average standard created by the human sciences against which people are measured: the sane man, the law-abiding citizen and the obedient child are all “normal people”. But an idea of ‘normal’ also implies the existence of the abnormal: the madman, the criminal and deviant are the reverse side of this coin. An idea of deviance is possible only where norms exist. For Foucault, norms are concepts that are constantly used to evaluate and control us: they do exclude those who cannot conform to the ‘normal’ categories. As such, they are an unavoidable but somehow harmful feature of modern society’ (Foucault, 1977). In the case of disabled people the society does acknowledge them but it does not embrace them. Society fails to celebrate differences. The society wants people to be the same, homogeneous otherwise they can’t fit into the scheme of things. Society creates a norm and it wants everyone to fit into it regardless of their shape and 11 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 size. One can say that society creates a norm and the norm generally excludes disabled people. DISABILITY, STATE AND EDUCATION Despite the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities framed in 2006, claiming that disabled people 'are a valuable resource of the country', there has been little change in the actual treatment of disabled people by the state apparatus in India. Policy initiatives in India have remained confined within the dominant medical paradigm and has not only defined disability in medical terms but also handed over the power of certification of disability to the medical professionals operating within fixed infrastructural contexts (Ghosh, 2012) “Negative attitudes to disability are still the major stumbling blocks for disabled children in accessing and benefiting from mainstream education. The traditional response to the question of education for the disabled in India has been the establishment of ‘special schools’ in which disabled are taught in a segregated environment from other students. However, special schools promote isolation, alienation and social exclusion, and therefore it was imperative to make adequate provisions for inclusive education”)Ghosh, 2012). The pre-independence Sargent Commission Report of 1944 and the Kothari Commission Report ‘recommended the adoption of dual approach’ to meet the educational needs of disabled children. These reports suggested that children with disabilities should not be segregated from normal children; rather, integrative education should be adopted. But till the 1970’s, the policy encouraged segregation as many educators believed that children with physical, sensory, or intellectual disabilities were so different that they could not participate in the activities of the common school’ )Ahmed 2014:90). “The Kothari Commission’s proposal for a common school system and its reaffirmation in the NPE in 1986 was a clear cut indication that equal access to education opportunities was on the state’s agenda” )Kumar 2006 : 22). The commission argued that ‘in a situation of the type we have in India it is the responsibility of the educational system to bring the different social classes and groups together and thus promote the emergence of an egalitarian and in integrated society. If these evils are to be eliminated and the educational system is to become powerful instrument of national development in general and social and national integration in particular, we must move towards the goal of a common school system of public education’ )Aggarwal 2010 : 179). So one cannot die the fact that the committee was the first of its kind to recommend the common- schooling system. The commission also stated that in order to fulfill this purpose, neighbourhood schools should be established in all localities. However the commission failed to specify where the management of the schools would rest. 111 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The National Policy on Education (1986) reiterated the issue of equality of educational opportunities, and free and compulsory education for all children upto the age of 14 years but that very document also included non- formal education as part of a policy document. Though it argued that non- formal education can result in providing the same quality of education with regard to formal schooling, but then the question is can it lead to social equality? In a way then by endorsing the non- formal schooling, the State is being very clear of the fact that there are certain section of the population that cannot be accommodated in schools, without trying to delve into the reasons that why those children from particular section remain outside school. Where does the problem lie? Why the State is forced to take such a step of propagating non- formal education? And in the present times it is been seen and noticed that this strategy of non-formal education is being used by the State to shed its responsibility of providing ‘equitable’ and quality education. This seems to hold true especially in the case of those who are disabled. And the recent amendment to the Right to Education Act, which legalizes home-based education, justifies my above argument. ‘Though there has been spectacular growth in elementary education in India during the post-independence period, the goal of universalization of elementary education remains the most conspicuous failure of the Indian education system’ )Tilak 1995 :278). Post NPE, )1986), ‘the Indian State’s policy on education did witness a major shift. The Directive Principles of State Policy were being ignored for over half a century and the state evaded its responsibility to impart free and compulsory education of good quality. It began meeting demands for formal schooling by implementing non- formal schemes under the garb of increasing the literacy rate. These changes left their impressions on the reports of different education committees as well. The only departure from the customary stance were the National Policy on the Education Review Committee (1990) or the Ramamurti Committee Report. However these recommendations were also rejected or shelved’)Kumar 2010: 24). One can notice the shift in the educational policy in the post- 1990 period when programmes of ‘alternative’ and ‘innovative education’ )includes home- based education, special education, integration and inclusive education) began escalating. But one needs to situate this debate in dialogue with the larger international debates happening on education worldwide. The term ‘inclusive education’ owes its origin to the education of children with disabilities and special needs, as a preference to educating them in a segregated special education environment, as in Western countries. ‘It has now become an international buzzword in school education, unlike its predecessor ‘integration’ used generally in Europe, Asia and Australia, and ‘mainstreaming’ in the USA and Canada’)Jha 2006 :267). The popularity of this term has enhanced since the Salamanca Declaration )UNESCO 1994) on ‘special needs education’ declared in June 1994 that ‘regular schools with inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society, and achieving education for all. Moreover, they provide an effective education to the majority of children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 effectiveness of the entire education system’. With India becoming signatory to the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994), the 1990s saw the rapid incorporation of the term ‘inclusive education’ in various official documents, reports published by institutions such as the NCERT and media. The background paper of a workshop organised by the RCI stated: while special education began in India with the establishment of special schools, it was in 1960s–1970s that integrated education began to be advocated; however, after 1994, inclusive education is strongly recommended (RCI, 2001: 2). Vislie )2003) states that since Salamanca ‘inclusion’ has become a global descriptor, and the international community, by signing the declaration has adopted its usage; however, there is no formally fixed and stable use of terminology. Indeed, whilst inclusive education is not a given, it cannot be overlooked that this concept “has acquired increasing international currency, which poses the danger that wishful thinking about the way it is used or applied may distract people from exploring the realities of practice” )Booth and Ainscow, 1998: 3). Thomas and O’Hanlon )2001: vii) are even more critical in their reflections and note that the term is often used ‘merely )as) a filler in the conversation’ and ‘people can talk about “inclusion” without really thinking about what they mean’. These concerns resonate with the observations made by Kalyanpur (2007: 5) in her exploration of inclusive practices in India. She states that the usage of inclusive education highlights “a tendency to be ‘politically correct’ by taking on current trends in the west without a real or common understanding of their meaning, resulting in dilution of service quality”. While the terminology has changed, the principles and practices underpinning it have remained fixed. The rights of the children were envisaged at the CRC and reaffirmed through the recent UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) (2006). The CRC remains a landmark document, which comprehensively covers civil and political, social, economic and cultural rights of children. It takes due consideration of the survival, development, protection and participation needs of children. India ratified the convention in December 1992, thereby committing itself to protect and promote rights of all its children. Both the conventions clearly uphold the importance of education of all children with disabilities and maintain that they must not be excluded from the general educational system. Though the member nations have ratified the convention there are reported good practices and violations all over the world. ‘Disability’ in children renders them even more vulnerable to violation of their rights. Children with disabilities have universally suffered discrimination, violence and abuse, poverty, exclusion and institutionalization (International Save the Children Alliance 2001:2). Jones’ )2000) critic of the ‘country reports’ to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, is that in majority of the cases children with disabilities were referred under Article 23 only focusing on rehabilitation and special care. Children were rarely mentioned under Article 28 (the right to education) and other Articles, indicative of ‘welfare’ rather than ‘rights’ approach of nations towards children with disabilities. Another programme that was initiated during the year 1994 was the District Primary Education Programme. This was yet another programme designed by the state to 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 accentuate the existing inequalities although it was committed to the goal of ‘Education for All’. ‘While DPEP is primarily supported by loans from the World Bank, funds for it have been placed in a pool that consists of grant money from other donors such as the European Union, ODA, the Government of Netherlands and UNICEF’)Kumar 2001:562). The basic objectives of the DPEP were to expand the system and improve the quality of instruction. Since DPEP funds, received from external sources, were only an additionality to state allocations, it was the responsibility of State governments to fill up existing and new vacancies according to the prevailing norms of recruitment. However, one after the other the State governments sought to fill up vacancies in confident disregard of official DPEP guidelines. Instead of making full-time appointments as per the prevailing norms of permanent service, they chose to make contractual appointments at one-fourth or onefifth the regular salary, disbursed from DPEP funds in most cases. ‘These contractteachers were given a variety of fancy names - such as 'Vidya Sahayak' in Gujarat, 'Vidya Volunteers' in Andhra Pradesh, 'Guruji' and 'Shiksha Karmi' in Madhya Pradesh and 'Shiksha Mitra' in Uttar Pradesh - obviously to hide the meagre emoluments and insecurity of service. Some of them were posted in 'alternative schools', devised for the poorest sections of village society’ )Kumar 2001).The 'education guarantee scheme' of Madhya Pradesh was, and continues to be, the largest scheme of this kind. Far from being criticised for the abysmally rudimentary facilities it offers, it has been praised for reaching the unreached. So successful has been the publicity that the abnegation of recruitment norms, the poor quality of teacher training, and the exploitative cycle in which it places primary-level teachers are completely overlooked. ‘This kind of politics of ethos-building applies to all the other para-teacher schemes as well. The placement of poorly qualified and even more poorly trained (in most cases the training lasts 21 days) para-teachers in place of permanent, properly recruited teachers in regular schools has got buried under the vast rhetoric and data released in the name of Education for All’ )Kumar, 2001). The government was not perturbed that its policy stance was synonymous to institutionalising discrimination against the poor, a majority of whom would be Dalits, the tribal people and religious or cultural minorities, two-thirds of each segment being girls. Most of the disabled children will also fall in this category, earmarked for discrimination. The policy was pushed forward brutally in spite of wide public criticism and the principle of equality enshrined in the Constitution. ‘The government's refrain of `something is better than nothing' seemed to justify, instead of questioning, the collapse of education policies during the past 56 years. The concept of a parallel stream was first institutionalised by the 1986 policy in the form of non-formal education for the poor, especially child workers’ )Sadgopal, 2003). This has been acknowledged as major policy fault line, as it was used by the policymakers of the 1980s as a rationale for not focussing political attention on the transformation of the mainstream school system in favour of the poor, especially the girls and the disabled children. Although the policy was committed to establishing a common school system through the promotion of neighbourhood schools, as recommended by the Kothari Commission (1964-66), the parallel stream of non1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 formal education became the dominant policy imperative. This effectively marginalizes the concept of common school system and the constitutional principle of equality. Quality education rapidly became the preserve of the privileged, making education a commodity. This yet led to another piece of Act, which was enacted in 1995 known as the Persons with Disability Act. However, the features of the Act reveal the inability of the state to meet the goal of equality. The PWD Act was a legislative attempt to protect the rights of the persons with disabilities. It primarily stresses that the disabled child should, as far as possible, be educated in integrated setting. Alur )2002) notes that the ‘proposed Act was introduced in pursuance of being a signatory to ESCAP, which had adopted a proclamation on the full participation and equality of people with disabilities in the Asian and Pacific region’. But the Act is often contested on the grounds of ‘Equality’ as on one hand it advocated the notion of ‘inclusive schooling’, in other words supports the view that the disabled children should be integrated in the mainstream schooling system and on the other hand proposes the establishment of special schools and also advocates claims of other alternative forms of schooling including homeschooling. Also the Act does not mention children with learning disabilities, which do form an important part of the population. The definitions of disability given in the PWD Act do not reflect definitions propounded by disabled people themselves. Disability is not a fixed category. The PWD Act fails to take into account that the term ‘people with disabilities’ encompasses a very wide range of differing life experiences and physical and mental states. It is very important to have a broad definition of disability as it ensures that legal actions do not flounder at the threshold because of a technical decision about who is ‘disabled’) Basser and Jones 2002). So basically the definition of disability as enshrined in the PWD Act is a very narrow one. Alur (2002) points out that “he intent of the proposed legislation is extremely laudatory as it is the first time that India recognizes persons with disabilities as ‘equal’ human beings. However no rights have been conferred on them in the event of non-compliance by the State, nor is there any enforcement agency or fiscal support” )pg. 26). Specialized services are being promised without any infrastructure to deliver them. In short the PWD Act does not have a clear articulation of equality. Kothari )2010) says that ‘the PWD Act puts in place affirmative action programmes for the public employment and education, but there is no declaration of the basic rights to equality and nondiscrimination and to the protection of the right to life and dignity for all persons with disabilities. Most crucially, the PWD Act does not have any clear equality guarantee for persons with disabilities. “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, another flagship programme introduced by the Government of India for achievement of Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) in a time bound manner, as mandated by 86th amendment to the Constitution of India making free and compulsory Education to the Children of 6-14 years age group, a Fundamental Right SSA is being implemented in partnership with State Governments to cover the entire country and address the needs of 192 million children in 1.1 million habitations. The programme seeks to open new schools in those habitations which do not have schooling facilities and strengthen existing school infrastructure through provision of 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 additional class rooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grants. Existing schools with inadequate teacher strength are provided with additional teachers, while the capacity of existing teachers is being strengthened by extensive training, grants for developing teaching-learning materials and strengthening of the academic support structure at a cluster, block and district level. SSA seeks to provide quality elementary education including life skills. SSA has a special focus on girl's education and children with special needs”) SSA, 2006). The Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, SSA (into which DPEP was incorporated) thus extends the dual approach historically adopted towards the education of children with disabilities, by propagating a “multi-optional delivery system”. It categorically brings the concerns of children with disabilities, or those it terms as “children with special needs )CWSN)” under the framework of “inclusive education” )IE): SSA will ensure that every child with special needs, irrespective of the kind, category and degree of disability, is provided education in an appropriate environment. SSA will adopt ‘zero rejection’ policy so that no child is left out of the education system. (SSA, 2007:1) SSA further extends the range of options from special and mainstream/ ‘regular’ schools to Education Guarantee Scheme/Alternative and Innovative Education (EGS/AIE) and Home Based Education (HBE). Therefore the implicit assumption that inclusion should strengthen or enable mainstream educational participation of children with disabilities does not necessarily hold true in the model proposed by SSA. “Rather it seems to advocate a stance that education should be imparted in an environment that is most suited to the child’s needs and there should be flexibility in planning. While the SSA objectives are expressed nationally, it is expected that various states and districts will endeavour to achieve universalisation in their own respective contexts and by 2010. It therefore offers each district flexibility to plan for activities aimed at educating CWSN, depending on the number of children identified and the resources available to effectively implement the IE programme. While such flexibility might be regarded as a positive step, it is not surprising that this has resulted in many different models of inclusive education operative across the country- raising concerns about the quality and effectiveness of provision”) Singal, 2009) Heralded as “New paths in Inclusion” Home Based Education has a significant place in SSA, and is defined as: The education of children with severe intellectual/physical disabilities, who can be educated in the combination of home-based and alternate educational settings to enable them to achieve independent living skills. (SSA, 2006: 5) 1 4 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Even though the government is highly supportive of this endeavour, the rationale for HBE is based on a very fuzzy account. SSA )2006: 6) notes that, “Although, no evaluation/impact assessment studies are available to gauge the efficacy of HBE programmes, research highlights the following advantages...”, the document lists these as “parents become effective teachers”, “progress in overall development” etc. However, the ‘research’ evidence that this document draws upon is not even stated )or even referenced). The justification put forth for HBE argues that children attending these provisions will never respond to the demands of an academic curriculum and require alternatives, and they also need the support of a peer group that is more like they are. The same document however purports the aim of HBE as “school preparedness and preparation for life”. These inherent contradictions remain overlooked in the rationale and aims of the home based programme. Additionally, it is unclear how parents, especially from low income families, with little or no education and with other pressing concerns of income generation will be equipped to take on the role of parent-teachers. Further, this legalization of home- based education by the Right to Education Act, 2009 through a recent amendment has created a series of controversies and debates amongst scholars and activist. There have been certain parents who homeschool their children but for the first time in the Constitutional history such a practice has been legalized by the Indian State. Coming to another significant Act, The Right to Education Act, 2009 which promises to guarantee free and compulsory education to children aged 6 to 14 years. Although devoid of obvious segregationist terminologies, the Act does little to encourage ‘inclusive education’. The question is will the act guarantee free education to all children? According to me the answer is No. Where does the Act say that all children will be provided completely free education? On the other hand, the Act reserves the right to levy charges as long as, in the ‘wisdom’ of the prescribed authority, it shall not ‘prevent him or her from pursuing and completely the elementary education’. Also there is a significant amount of difference between the Act’s concept of Neighbourhood School and the universally accepted concept of Neighbourhood school. Sadgopal )2010) says that ‘although Neighbourhood School is not defined, the Parliament debate and media reports imply that it means providing a school in the ‘neighbourhood of the child’ to be specified by the state governments. This will make it possible for the prescribed authority to assign or deny a school to the child among the schools of varying quality to the neighbourhood. This is a guarantee for sustaining and promoting discrimination. In contrast, the universal concept is of ‘neighbourhood of the school’which requires by law, all families residing in the specified neighbourhood to send their children to the same school, irrespective of their social, economic, religious, cultural or linguistic background or disability. This concept alone can pave the way for moving towards a Common School System providing education of equitable quality. This, however, stands denied by the Act’)pg.40). RTE legislation emerges as a tactic of legitimizing already existing discriminatory system. The RTE Act not only institutionalizes the present multi-layered and unequal school system, but also further enlarges inequalities and discrimination in all 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 dimensions. Schools need to provide for holistic all-round development of children; this requires adequate space and facilities, time to be spent at school, a sound curriculum, and qualified teachers who can ensure that children have worth-while learning and development experiences and opportunities (Sarangpani, 2009). Also as mentioned above, through a recent amendment the Act legalizes home-based education for the disabled. The question then one needs to ask is – Is home based education in the best interest of the child? While the Government of India feels that home- based education is a legal option for elementary education and is in the best interest of the disabled child, I strong feel that it is not. Such an option is likely to foster greater amount of social isolation, exclusion from the community and peers, which is further likely to devalue the child. Today, many children labeled as having severe and profound disabilities, can with some support and help,study within the system even as it is today. Children with disabilities are the largest group of out of school children in our country today. It is true that the demand for their just and legitimate education has not even risen within communities and families in our country. We are aware of the fact that there are many families that still do not believe that their child is educable. Apart from our societal attitudes, the truth is that our structures for early childhood care, education and protection and our rehabilitation systems have not reached out to these children and families. The primary focus has to be on supporting the child and the family to get to school, not on leaving the child at home. To argue that any child is so impaired that she/he cannot reach a school or participate in school life is to put the blame on the child. An inclusive system is one that is willing to adjust according to the needs of the child. However, this should not mean it is content with providing the lowest common denominator to any child. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on the proposed Amendments to R.T.E. Act observed that there are very few children with multiple disabilities in the ‘regular’ schools in our country. The question that we need to ask here is why? Are children with multiple disabilities not in school because they cannot be in schools? Or is it that the system has not tried hard enough? According to my understanding it is the latter. There has been no real ‘abhiyan’ to get children with severe and various disabilities into schools and to make the schools more inclusive and all-encompassing ones for them. CONCLUDING REMARKS The present paper looked at the contemporary developments in the sphere of educational policy that have happened in the Indian context in recent past specifically since the amendment providing the possibility of home-based education to the disabled children. The paper further argued that this particular development couldn’t be seen in seclusion and as a stand alone moment in educational policy history of the country but is rather a continuation of the absent will of the Indian state to educate each and every child irrespective of their abilities, class, caste or gender affiliations. 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The state is the source and apparatus through which power is organized. Each society has its ‘regimes of truth’, the type of discourses it accepts and lets function as truth. These regimes are laid down, and can co-operate through social exclusion and marginalization. These dividing practices (Foucault, 1974: 49) have been used to legitimate actions. Today oppression and cultural injustice to the disability group have become entrenched. By legalizing practices such as those of home-based education, the government has tried to get relieved of its responsibility of providing education to the disabled. Also the continuance of such practices has suited the governments’ resource allocation for this group. This would need a major economic and social transformation to change attitudes to develop equality in education. This is specially so when the majority of families with disability are powerless in the grip of poverty and deprivation, their powerlessness leading to an unquestionable compliance with societal norms. The question then remains one of moral and ethical policy decision: Should India prioritize the needs of the normal child as the most urgent and postpone the decision to include the disabled child until such time as all normal children are in the school? What is the ethical and moral position India wishes to take in its explanation of the exclusion from basic welfare services? What kind of society do we want? Is this cultural injustice in keeping with the spirit of the Constitution? The values of egalitarianism, social justice and moral ethics are values that need to have proper recognition in a society. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alur, Mithu. 2009. Inclusive education Across Cultures. India: Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd Alur, Mithu.2002. Education and Children with Special Needs. India: Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd Abberley, Paul. 1987. ‘The Concept of Oppression and Development of Social theory of Disability’ Disability, Handicap and Society, Vol.2 (1):5-18 Addlakha, Renu. 2009.‘Gender, subjectivity and sexual identity: how young people with disabilities conceptualise the body, sex and marriage in urban India’,www.cwds.ac.in/OCPaper/genderSubjectivity-Renu-ocpaper.pdf (Last accessed on 24 April 2016) Ahmed, R., 2014. Legal and Policy Response to Right to Education for Children with Disabilities in India. J. Nat'l LU Delhi, 2, p.85. Aggarwal, J.C., 2009. Landmarks In The History Of Modern Indian Education, 6E. Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd. Booth, T. and Ainscow, M. (1998) (Eds.), From them to us: An international study of inclusion in education. London: Routledge. Bhattacharya, T., 2010. Re-examining issue of inclusion in education. Economic and Political Weekly, pp.18-25. Evans, Mary.2002. Real Bodies: A Sociological Introduction. New York: Palgrave. 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Ghai, Anita. 2006. ‘Education in a globalizing era: Implications for disabled girls’, Social Change, Vol.36 (3):161-176 Foucault, M., 1977. Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Vintage. Ghosh, N., 2012. Disabled Definitions, Impaired Policies: Reflections on Limits of Dominant Concepts of Disability. Garland-Thomson, R. 1997. Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in American Culture and Literature. New York. Columbia University Press. Jha, ε.ε.2006. ‘Inclusive Education in the context of Common Schools: A question of Equity , Social Justice and School Reforms’, Pp 266-295. In Kumar. Ravi Ed, Crisis of Elementary Education in India. New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd. Kumar, K., Priyam, M. and Saxena, S., 2001. Looking beyond the smokescreen: DPEP and primary education in India. Economic and Political Weekly, pp.560-568. Kumar, R. ed., 2006. 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Silvers, A., Wasserman, D. and Mahowald, M. 1998. Disability, Difference, Discrimination: perspectives on Justice in Bioethics and Public Policy. New York. Singal, N., 2010. Education of children with disabilities in India. Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report [online]. Sarangapani, P.M., 2009. Quality, feasibility and desirability of low cost private schooling. Economic and Political Weekly, pp.67-69. Sadgopal, A., 2003. Education for too few. Frontline, 20(24), pp.97-100. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.2007. Inclusive education in SSA. 164.100.51.121/inclusive-education/Inclusive_Edu_May07.pdf 1 Available at: Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.2006. Discovering new paths in inclusion. A documentation of Home based education practices for CWSN in SSA. Delhi: Department of EE&L (MHRD). UNESCO.1994. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. Madrid: UNESCO/Ministry of Education and Science. Vislie, L. 2003. From integration to inclusion: focusing global trends and changes in the western European societies. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 18 (1), 17–35. 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 Decoding the politics of ‘Right to Education’ in India through the Prism of the Disabled Anayika Chopra The] general education of all children without exception at the expense of the State – [ an education which is equal for all and continues until the individual is capable of emerging as an independent member of society…. would be only an act of justice…for clearly, every man has the right to the fullest development of his abilities and society wrongs individuals twice over when it makes ignorance a necessary .consequence of poverty )Frederick Engels (February 8, 1845 - This paper looks at the contemporary developments in the sphere of educational policy that has happened in the Indian context in recent past specifically since the amendment providing the possibility of home- based education to the disabled children. The paper argues that this development cannot be seen in isolation and as a particular, stand alone moment in education policy history of the country but is rather a continuation of the absent will of the Indian state to educate each and every child irrespective of their abilities, class, caste or gender affiliations. It all began when the Indian state failed to implement the Article 45 of the Directive Principles of State Policy and it continued through its failure to implement the Common School System, introduction of informal education system and then by enacting a law that makes the right provisional by not committing to how to educate every child. This paper looks at this orientation of the Indian state through the prism of the elements of disability in .the RTE Act The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, which came into being on 1st April 2010, has been a major milestone in ensuring the critical right to free and compulsory education for all children between the age 6-14 in India. But millions of children with disabilities got left out in the Act. Children with disabilities, including children with very high support needs, are equal holders of this fundamental right. But today through the proposed amendments to the RTE, Act 2009, this fundamental right of the children is being watered down and instead of school, ‘home’ is being offered as a legitimate, alternative option for the education of a child with very high support needs. The Indian state has not only been unable to implement the right to education sincerely, but has nonetheless transformed the character of education, deviating from the ideals. “The recent programme of SSA, EGS and AIE, have implied a second –grade teaching for children of the poor, Dalits, disabled and girls. The ‘alternative’ programmes designate them as their ‘targets’ because they are the most needy ones due to their poor resource base. It is an irony that despite considering them so, the programmes deliver to them a substandard education”)Kumar 2006: 38). Why does the inclusion of RTE in Fundamental Rights not been able to ensure equality in educational access to the disabled? It is primarily this question that the present paper aims to address. But to do this I would like to 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 place this present debate on disabled’s education in India within the larger milieu on .how disability has been perceived UNDERSTANDING THE DISCOURSE ON DISABILITY IN INDIA Western conceptualizations of disability have played a key role in shaping the ways in which the discourse on disability in India has developed, and which has been mediated by the socio- cultural and religious attitudes of society as well as of the policy makers (Ghosh, 2012). However, the disability activists and academics in the West have increasingly advocated a nuanced understanding of disability and impairment as impairment also is created, defined and understood within social contexts (Shakespeare 2004). Thus the relationship between impairment and disability becomes very complex as impairments are multiple and are seen to impinge differently upon disabled people at different points of time, depending on a host of psychological, social and environmental factors that are all external to the biomedical condition (Silvers, Wasserman & Mahowald 1998). Thus the ways in which bodies interrelate with socially engineered environments, which include the natural environment, the built environment, culture, the economic system, the political system, and psychological factors and conform to social expectations determine the .)varying degrees of disability (Garland-Thomson 1997 Marks (1999) defines disability as 'the complex relationship between the environment, body and psyche, which serves to exclude certain people from becoming full participants in interpersonal, social, cultural, economic and political affairs'. This definition of disability avoids the usual individual/social binary, and insists that disability does not reside within a particular body or environment, but rather is an embodied relationship. People with different forms of disability experience their bodies and negotiate their identities in different ways, as forms of resistance and the struggle for bodily control, independence and emancipation are embodied. Disability therefore becomes relative, its impact changing according to type and degree of .impairment, socio-economic status, gender, social and geographical locations etc Disability as a cultural category that highlights human variations unites a highly heterogeneous group of people, who share only one common characteristic - that of being considered abnormal (Garland-Thomson 1997). Disability signals that the body cannot be universalized as it is shaped by history, defined by its particularity and may be at odds with the environment. When we talk about disability the physical attributes of a perfect body often come to mind. When we see a person with missing limbs, or a person who cannot see or hear then we tend to group them with others whose body and bodily behavior vary from the usual and give them the rank of the disabled. Societies reaction to the disabled body varies from pity, disgust and abhorrence and claims to “normality”. Questions ranging from how does one look at the body, what does a perfect body mean, who has the right to speak for the body have often been raised. Feminism in the work of Judith Butler and Susan Bordo has challenged understandings of the body as biologically given and fixed.They argue that human body is both culturally and historically specific (Evans 2002:1). The idea of the body as fixed also stands challenged when one looks at the diversity of cultural practices 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 relating to body across the world. However every culture in its own specific world view has treated bodies as fixed and defines it unilinearally. Hence in the end body remains a site of contestation. Evans in her work Real Bodies argues that body /bodies that were once seen as fixed are now seen as less certainly defined. It is this idea of fixated definition that is relevant to the analysis of disability because it would challenge the notion of a “normal” body. Thus, it seems impossible to speak about the nature of the body or take for granted the body as a fixed category. This argument can further be strengthened by taking into account the advancement in medical technology, which has given us the ability to alter and negotiate with our bodies. While this right is given, the trend is to follow a pattern that the ‘society’ likes – examples being ‘nose job’ or taking of sliming capsules because fat body defies the notion of ‘beauty’. But then a question can be raised that why does one have to alter their body? The question of altering the body acquires complexity the body gets embedded in a socio-economic dynamics that changes from one historical moment to another. Whether it is the body of a male or a female both are encoded with social meanings. There is a need to examine the different ways in which male and female bodies have been constructed so as to recognize the impact of social expectations on .)the body (Evan 2002:5 When talking about the body of the disabled, can one separate the ‘body’ from disability is a claim that has recently come up with a lot of debate. The reason why this debate has emerged is because of the inability of many scholars to understand the meaning of the term ‘disability’ itself. The word disability is generally understood in relation to the term impairment. The term disability is defined as the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organization which takes little or no account of people who have physical impairments thus excluding them from the mainstream of social activities. Impairment on the other hand is defined as the lacking of all or part of a limb or having a defective limb, organ of the body. This debate has given rise to the social model of disability as pointed out by Carol Thomas. The social model of disability proposes that the relatively non-impaired majority socially oppress people with marked physical, sensory or intellectual impairments (Thomas 2002:68). One can, then, define disability as the socially oppressive response of the nonimpaired to the impaired in society. The ‘disabled’ when introduced to the social model of disability tends to see the source of the problem lying outside their bodies. This leads to a very valid question which is do we see impairment as concerning itself with essential biological differences between bodies or whether one should see it in terms of culturally constructed differences without any ‘real’ biological foundations? When analyzing the debate on the social model of disability it becomes important to visit the work by Paul Abberley who has argued “social processes and practices either directly create impairments by damaging the body or produce higher levels of impairments in society by enabling people with previous unsustainable impairments .)to stay alive for longer”)Abberley 1987:9 Building on the above literature on the social model of disability, one could add the dimension of gender to further strengthen the debate on body and disability. As mentioned above there is a need to examine the different ways in which male and female bodies have been constructed to recognize the impact of social expectations on the body. For a woman her body image directly influences her self-image. Women as 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 we all know are considered inferior to men and this fact is further authenticated when we see a woman who is physically disabled. Disabled women are not only more likely to internalize society’s rejection but they are more likely than disabled men to identify themselves as ‘disabled’. The disabled male possesses a relatively positive self-image and is more likely to identify as ‘male’ rather than as disabled. Disabled women live in bodies which do not always work and often defy the dominant notion of ‘normal experiences’ )Begum 1992:67). Women in relation to men have often been perceived as more intimately connected to their bodies. So if a disabled women starts losing respect for her own body and internalizes the negative messages that label her body as ‘defective’ and ‘undesirable’, then her body also becomes a source of pain and .embarrassment for her Disability thus becomes the attribution of corporeal deviance - not as a property of bodies but as a product of cultural rules about what bodies should be or do (Shakespeare 1996). Disability is also experienced in, on and through the body, as impairment is interpreted in terms of personal and cultural narratives that help to constitute its meaning. Therefore disability is seen as culturally, spatially and historically variable, swayed by various social, economic and political determinants that affect the individual experiences of people with differing degrees of impairment. Recent attempts to theorize disability have however emphasized that any conceptualization of disability must take into account other bases of identity like gender, race and class and the way in which these identities interact with the disabled status to exert simultaneous oppression over people with disabilities. As disability is a socially created category, its meaning varies according to other systems of power and inequality. Feminist disability scholars (Ghai; Addlakha), in specific, have argued that the homogenization of the experience of disability has projected the experiences of disabled men as representative of all disabled people, ignoring gendered societal standards that influence and construct cultural notions of masculinity and femininity and shape the development of identities of men and women with disabilities. In this sense, disabled women are doubly disadvantaged. Their socio-economic, cultural and political deprivation combined with an oppressive definition of ‘normal’ body .)subjects them to inconceivable pain and misery (Ghosh,2012 Society and its norms play a very crucial role in shaping opinions regarding the disabled and their place in the social set up. But then the question arises as how does one define the word ‘norm’ or how does one conceptualise this? According to Foucault in his work Discipline and Punish ‘Norm refers to an average standard created by the human sciences against which people are measured: the sane man, the law-abiding citizen and the obedient child are all “normal people”. But an idea of ‘normal’ also implies the existence of the abnormal: the madman, the criminal and deviant are the reverse side of this coin. An idea of deviance is possible only where norms exist. For Foucault, norms are concepts that are constantly used to evaluate and control us: they do exclude those who cannot conform to the ‘normal’ categories. As such, they are an unavoidable but somehow harmful feature of modern society’ (Foucault, 1977). In the case of disabled people the society does acknowledge them but it does not embrace them. Society fails to celebrate differences. The society wants people to be the same, homogeneous otherwise they can’t fit into the scheme of things. Society creates a norm and it wants everyone to fit into it regardless of their 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 shape and size. One can say that society creates a norm and the norm generally .excludes disabled people DISABILITY, STATE AND EDUCATION Despite the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities framed in 2006, claiming that disabled people 'are a valuable resource of the country', there has been little change in the actual treatment of disabled people by the state apparatus in India. Policy initiatives in India have remained confined within the dominant medical paradigm and has not only defined disability in medical terms but also handed over the power of certification of disability to the medical professionals operating within )fixed infrastructural contexts (Ghosh, 2012 Negative attitudes to disability are still the major stumbling blocks for disabled “ children in accessing and benefiting from mainstream education. The traditional response to the question of education for the disabled in India has been the establishment of ‘special schools’ in which disabled are taught in a segregated environment from other students. However, special schools promote isolation, alienation and social exclusion, and therefore it was imperative to make adequate .)provisions for inclusive education”)Ghosh, 2012 The pre-independence Sargent Commission Report of 1944 and the Kothari Commission Report ‘recommended the adoption of dual approach’ to meet the educational needs of disabled children. These reports suggested that children with disabilities should not be segregated from normal children; rather, integrative education should be adopted. But till the 1970’s, the policy encouraged segregation as many educators believed that children with physical, sensory, or intellectual disabilities were so different that they could not participate in the activities of the common school’ )Ahmed 2014:90). “The Kothari Commission’s proposal for a common school system and its reaffirmation in the NPE in 1986 was a clear cut indication that equal access to education opportunities was on the state’s agenda” )Kumar 2006 : 22). The commission argued that ‘in a situation of the type we have in India it is the responsibility of the educational system to bring the different social classes and groups together and thus promote the emergence of an egalitarian and in integrated society. If these evils are to be eliminated and the educational system is to become powerful instrument of national development in general and social and national integration in particular, we must move towards the goal of a common school system of public education’ )Aggarwal 2010 : 179). So one cannot die the fact that the committee was the first of its kind to recommend the common- schooling system. The commission also stated that in order to fulfill this purpose, neighbourhood schools should be established in all localities. However the commission failed to specify .where the management of the schools would rest The National Policy on Education (1986) reiterated the issue of equality of educational opportunities, and free and compulsory education for all children upto the age of 14 years but that very document also included non- formal education as part of a policy document. Though it argued that non- formal education can result in 1 4 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 providing the same quality of education with regard to formal schooling, but then the question is can it lead to social equality? In a way then by endorsing the non- formal schooling, the State is being very clear of the fact that there are certain section of the population that cannot be accommodated in schools, without trying to delve into the reasons that why those children from particular section remain outside school. Where does the problem lie? Why the State is forced to take such a step of propagating nonformal education? And in the present times it is been seen and noticed that this strategy of non-formal education is being used by the State to shed its responsibility of providing ‘equitable’ and quality education. This seems to hold true especially in the case of those who are disabled. And the recent amendment to the Right to .Education Act, which legalizes home-based education, justifies my above argument Though there has been spectacular growth in elementary education in India during ‘ the post-independence period, the goal of universalization of elementary education remains the most conspicuous failure of the Indian education system’ )Tilak 1995 .):278 Post NPE, )1986), ‘the Indian State’s policy on education did witness a major shift. The Directive Principles of State Policy were being ignored for over half a century and the state evaded its responsibility to impart free and compulsory education of good quality. It began meeting demands for formal schooling by implementing nonformal schemes under the garb of increasing the literacy rate. These changes left their impressions on the reports of different education committees as well. The only departure from the customary stance were the National Policy on the Education Review Committee (1990) or the Ramamurti Committee Report. However these recommendations were also rejected or shelved’)Kumar 2010: 24). One can notice the shift in the educational policy in the post- 1990 period when programmes of ‘alternative’ and ‘innovative education’ )includes home- based education, special education, integration and inclusive education) began escalating. But one needs to situate this debate in dialogue with the larger international debates happening on .education worldwide The term ‘inclusive education’ owes its origin to the education of children with disabilities and special needs, as a preference to educating them in a segregated special education environment, as in Western countries. ‘It has now become an international buzzword in school education, unlike its predecessor ‘integration’ used generally in Europe, Asia and Australia, and ‘mainstreaming’ in the USA and Canada’)Jha 2006 :267). The popularity of this term has enhanced since the Salamanca Declaration (UNESCO 1994) on ‘special needs education’ declared in June 1994 that ‘regular schools with inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society, and achieving education for all. Moreover, they provide an effective education to the majority of children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire education system’. With India becoming signatory to the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994), the 1990s saw the rapid incorporation of the term ‘inclusive education’ in various official documents, reports published by institutions such as the NCERT and media. The background paper of a workshop organised by the RCI stated: while special education began in India with the establishment of special schools, it was in 1960s–1970s that integrated education 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 began to be advocated; however, after 1994, inclusive education is strongly .)recommended (RCI, 2001: 2 Vislie )2003) states that since Salamanca ‘inclusion’ has become a global descriptor, and the international community, by signing the declaration has adopted its usage; however, there is no formally fixed and stable use of terminology. Indeed, whilst inclusive education is not a given, it cannot be overlooked that this concept “has acquired increasing international currency, which poses the danger that wishful thinking about the way it is used or applied may distract people from exploring the realities of practice” )Booth and Ainscow, 1998: 3). Thomas and O’Hanlon )2001: vii) are even more critical in their reflections and note that the term is often used ‘merely )as) a filler in the conversation’ and ‘people can talk about “inclusion” without really thinking about what they mean’. These concerns resonate with the observations made by Kalyanpur (2007: 5) in her exploration of inclusive practices in India. She states that the usage of inclusive education highlights “a tendency to be ‘politically correct’ by taking on current trends in the west without a real or common understanding of their meaning, resulting in dilution of service quality”. While the terminology has changed, the principles and practices underpinning it have remained .fixed The rights of the children were envisaged at the CRC and reaffirmed through the recent UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) (2006). The CRC remains a landmark document, which comprehensively covers civil and political, social, economic and cultural rights of children. It takes due consideration of the survival, development, protection and participation needs of children. India ratified the convention in December 1992, thereby committing itself to protect and promote rights of all its children. Both the conventions clearly uphold the importance of education of all children with disabilities and maintain that they must not be excluded from the general educational system. Though the member nations have ratified the convention there are reported good practices and violations all over the world. ‘Disability’ in children renders them even more vulnerable to violation of their rights. Children with disabilities have universally suffered discrimination, violence and abuse, poverty, exclusion and institutionalization (International Save the Children Alliance 2001:2). Jones’ )2000) critic of the ‘country reports’ to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, is that in majority of the cases children with disabilities were referred under Article 23 only focusing on rehabilitation and special care. Children were rarely mentioned under Article 28 (the right to education) and other Articles, indicative of ‘welfare’ rather than ‘rights’ approach of nations towards .children with disabilities Another programme that was initiated during the year 1994 was the District Primary Education Programme. This was yet another programme designed by the state to accentuate the existing inequalities although it was committed to the goal of ‘Education for All’. ‘While DPEP is primarily supported by loans from the World Bank, funds for it have been placed in a pool that consists of grant money from other donors such as the European Union, ODA, the Government of Netherlands and UNICEF’)Kumar 2001:562). The basic objectives of the DPEP were to expand the system and improve the quality of instruction. Since DPEP funds, received from external sources, were only an additionality to state allocations, it was the responsibility of State governments to fill up existing and new vacancies according to 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 the prevailing norms of recruitment. However, one after the other the State governments sought to fill up vacancies in confident disregard of official DPEP guidelines. Instead of making full-time appointments as per the prevailing norms of permanent service, they chose to make contractual appointments at one-fourth or onefifth the regular salary, disbursed from DPEP funds in most cases. ‘These contractteachers were given a variety of fancy names - such as 'Vidya Sahayak' in Gujarat, 'Vidya Volunteers' in Andhra Pradesh, 'Guruji' and 'Shiksha Karmi' in Madhya Pradesh and 'Shiksha Mitra' in Uttar Pradesh - obviously to hide the meagre emoluments and insecurity of service. Some of them were posted in 'alternative schools', devised for the poorest sections of village society’ )Kumar 2001).The 'education guarantee scheme' of Madhya Pradesh was, and continues to be, the largest scheme of this kind. Far from being criticised for the abysmally rudimentary facilities it offers, it has been praised for reaching the unreached. So successful has been the publicity that the abnegation of recruitment norms, the poor quality of teacher training, and the exploitative cycle in which it places primary-level teachers are .completely overlooked This kind of politics of ethos-building applies to all the other para-teacher schemes as ‘ well. The placement of poorly qualified and even more poorly trained (in most cases the training lasts 21 days) para-teachers in place of permanent, properly recruited teachers in regular schools has got buried under the vast rhetoric and data released in .)the name of Education for All’ )Kumar, 2001 The government was not perturbed that its policy stance was synonymous to institutionalising discrimination against the poor, a majority of whom would be Dalits, the tribal people and religious or cultural minorities, two-thirds of each segment being girls. Most of the disabled children will also fall in this category, .earmarked for discrimination The policy was pushed forward brutally in spite of wide public criticism and the principle of equality enshrined in the Constitution. ‘The government's refrain of `something is better than nothing' seemed to justify, instead of questioning, the collapse of education policies during the past 56 years. The concept of a parallel stream was first institutionalised by the 1986 policy in the form of non-formal .)education for the poor, especially child workers’ )Sadgopal, 2003 This has been acknowledged as major policy fault line, as it was used by the policymakers of the 1980s as a rationale for not focussing political attention on the transformation of the mainstream school system in favour of the poor, especially the girls and the disabled children. Although the policy was committed to establishing a common school system through the promotion of neighbourhood schools, as recommended by the Kothari Commission (1964-66), the parallel stream of nonformal education became the dominant policy imperative. This effectively marginalizes the concept of common school system and the constitutional principle of equality. Quality education rapidly became the preserve of the privileged, making .education a commodity This yet led to another piece of Act, which was enacted in 1995 known as the Persons with Disability Act. However, the features of the Act reveal the inability of the state 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 to meet the goal of equality. The PWD Act was a legislative attempt to protect the rights of the persons with disabilities. It primarily stresses that the disabled child should, as far as possible, be educated in integrated setting. Alur (2002) notes that the ‘proposed Act was introduced in pursuance of being a signatory to ESCAP, which had adopted a proclamation on the full participation and equality of people with disabilities in the Asian and Pacific region’. But the Act is often contested on the grounds of ‘Equality’ as on one hand it advocated the notion of ‘inclusive schooling’, in other words supports the view that the disabled children should be integrated in the mainstream schooling system and on the other hand proposes the establishment of special schools and also advocates claims of other alternative forms of schooling including home-schooling. Also the Act does not mention children with learning disabilities, which do form an important part of the population. The definitions of disability given in the PWD Act do not reflect definitions propounded by disabled people themselves. Disability is not a fixed category. The PWD Act fails to take into account that the term ‘people with disabilities’ encompasses a very wide range of differing life experiences and physical and mental states. It is very important to have a broad definition of disability as it ensures that legal actions do not flounder at the threshold because of a technical decision about who is ‘disabled’) Basser and Jones 2002). So basically the definition of disability as enshrined in the PWD Act is a very narrow one. Alur )2002) points out that “he intent of the proposed legislation is extremely laudatory as it is the first time that India recognizes persons with disabilities as ‘equal’ human beings. However no rights have been conferred on them in the event of non-compliance by the State, nor is there any enforcement agency or fiscal support” )pg. 26). Specialized services are being promised without any infrastructure to deliver them. In short the PWD Act does not have a clear articulation of equality. Kothari )2010) says that ‘the PWD Act puts in place affirmative action programmes for the public employment and education, but there is no declaration of the basic rights to equality and non-discrimination and to the protection of the right to life and dignity for all persons with disabilities. Most crucially, the PWD Act does not .have any clear equality guarantee for persons with disabilities Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, another flagship programme introduced by the Government “ of India for achievement of Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) in a time bound manner, as mandated by 86th amendment to the Constitution of India making free and compulsory Education to the Children of 6-14 years age group, a Fundamental Right SSA is being implemented in partnership with State Governments to cover the entire .country and address the needs of 192 million children in 1.1 million habitations The programme seeks to open new schools in those habitations which do not have schooling facilities and strengthen existing school infrastructure through provision of additional class rooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school .improvement grants Existing schools with inadequate teacher strength are provided with additional teachers, while the capacity of existing teachers is being strengthened by extensive training, grants for developing teaching-learning materials and strengthening of the .academic support structure at a cluster, block and district level SSA seeks to provide quality elementary education including life skills. SSA has a .)special focus on girl's education and children with special needs”) SSA, 2006 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 The Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, SSA (into which DPEP was incorporated) thus extends the dual approach historically adopted towards the education of children with disabilities, by propagating a “multi-optional delivery system”. It categorically brings the concerns of children with disabilities, or those it terms as “children with special :)needs )CWSN)” under the framework of “inclusive education” )IE SSA will ensure that every child with special needs, irrespective of the kind, category and degree of disability, is provided education in an appropriate environment. SSA will adopt ‘zero rejection’ policy so that no child is left out of the )education system. (SSA, 2007:1 SSA further extends the range of options from special and mainstream/ ‘regular’ schools to Education Guarantee Scheme/Alternative and Innovative Education (EGS/AIE) and Home Based Education (HBE). Therefore the implicit assumption that inclusion should strengthen or enable mainstream educational participation of children with disabilities does not necessarily hold true in the model proposed by SSA. “Rather it seems to advocate a stance that education should be imparted in an environment that is most suited to the child’s needs and there should be flexibility in planning. While the SSA objectives are expressed nationally, it is expected that various states and districts will endeavour to achieve universalisation in their own respective contexts and by 2010. It therefore offers each district flexibility to plan for activities aimed at educating CWSN, depending on the number of children identified and the resources available to effectively implement the IE programme. While such flexibility might be regarded as a positive step, it is not surprising that this has resulted in many different models of inclusive education operative across the country)raising concerns about the quality and effectiveness of provision”) Singal, 2009 Heralded as “New paths in Inclusion” Home Based Education has a significant place :in SSA, and is defined as The education of children with severe intellectual/physical disabilities, who can be educated in the combination of home-based and alternate educational settings to .enable them to achieve independent living skills )SSA, 2006: 5) Even though the government is highly supportive of this endeavour, the rationale for HBE is based on a very fuzzy account. SSA )2006: 6) notes that, “Although, no evaluation/impact assessment studies are available to gauge the efficacy of HBE programmes, research highlights the following advantages...”, the document lists these as “parents become effective teachers”, “progress in overall development” etc. However, the ‘research’ evidence that this document draws upon is not even stated )or .)even referenced The justification put forth for HBE argues that children attending these provisions will never respond to the demands of an academic curriculum and require alternatives, and they also need the support of a peer group that is more like they are. The same document however purports the aim of HBE as “school preparedness and preparation 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 for life”. These inherent contradictions remain overlooked in the rationale and aims of the home based programme. Additionally, it is unclear how parents, especially from low income families, with little or no education and with other pressing concerns of income generation will be equipped to take on the role of parent-teachers. Further, this legalization of home- based education by the Right to Education Act, 2009 through a recent amendment has created a series of controversies and debates amongst scholars and activist. There have been certain parents who homeschool their children but for the first time in the Constitutional history such a practice has been legalized by .the Indian State Coming to another significant Act, The Right to Education Act, 2009 which promises to guarantee free and compulsory education to children aged 6 to 14 years. Although devoid of obvious segregationist terminologies, the Act does little to encourage ‘inclusive education’. The question is will the act guarantee free education to all children? According to me the answer is No. Where does the Act say that all children will be provided completely free education? On the other hand, the Act reserves the right to levy charges as long as, in the ‘wisdom’ of the prescribed authority, it shall not ‘prevent him or her from pursuing and completely the elementary education’. Also there is a significant amount of difference between the Act’s concept of Neighbourhood School and the universally accepted concept of Neighbourhood school. Sadgopal )2010) says that ‘although Neighbourhood School is not defined, the Parliament debate and media reports imply that it means providing a school in the ‘neighbourhood of the child’ to be specified by the state governments. This will make it possible for the prescribed authority to assign or deny a school to the child among the schools of varying quality to the neighbourhood. This is a guarantee for sustaining and promoting discrimination. In contrast, the universal concept is of ‘neighbourhood of the school’which requires by law, all families residing in the specified neighbourhood to send their children to the same school, irrespective of their social, economic, religious, cultural or linguistic background or disability. This concept alone can pave the way for moving towards a Common School System providing education .)of equitable quality. This, however, stands denied by the Act’)pg.40 RTE legislation emerges as a tactic of legitimizing already existing discriminatory system. The RTE Act not only institutionalizes the present multi-layered and unequal school system, but also further enlarges inequalities and discrimination in all dimensions. Schools need to provide for holistic all-round development of children; this requires adequate space and facilities, time to be spent at school, a sound curriculum, and qualified teachers who can ensure that children have worth-while .)learning and development experiences and opportunities (Sarangpani, 2009 Also as mentioned above, through a recent amendment the Act legalizes home-based education for the disabled. The question then one needs to ask is – Is home based education in the best interest of the child? While the Government of India feels that home- based education is a legal option for elementary education and is in the best interest of the disabled child, I strong feel that it is not. Such an option is likely to foster greater amount of social isolation, exclusion from the community and peers, which is further likely to devalue the child. Today, many children labeled as having severe and profound disabilities, can with some support and help,study within the 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 system even as it is today. Children with disabilities are the largest group of out of school children in our country today. It is true that the demand for their just and legitimate education has not even risen within communities and families in our country. We are aware of the fact that there are many families that still do not believe that their child is educable. Apart from our societal attitudes, the truth is that our structures for early childhood care, education and protection and our rehabilitation systems have not reached out to these children and families. The primary focus has to be on supporting the child and the family to get to school, not on leaving the child at .home To argue that any child is so impaired that she/he cannot reach a school or participate in school life is to put the blame on the child. An inclusive system is one that is willing to adjust according to the needs of the child. However, this should not mean it is content with providing the lowest common denominator to any child. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on the proposed Amendments to R.T.E. Act observed that there are very few children with multiple disabilities in the ‘regular’ schools in our country. The question that we need to ask here is why? Are children with multiple disabilities not in school because they cannot be in schools? Or is it that the system has not tried hard enough? According to my understanding it is the latter. There has been no real ‘abhiyan’ to get children with severe and various disabilities into schools and to make the schools more inclusive and all-encompassing ones for .them CONCLUDING REMARKS The present paper looked at the contemporary developments in the sphere of educational policy that have happened in the Indian context in recent past specifically since the amendment providing the possibility of home-based education to the disabled children. The paper further argued that this particular development couldn’t be seen in seclusion and as a stand alone moment in educational policy history of the country but is rather a continuation of the absent will of the Indian state to educate .each and every child irrespective of their abilities, class, caste or gender affiliations The state is the source and apparatus through which power is organized. Each society has its ‘regimes of truth’, the type of discourses it accepts and lets function as truth. These regimes are laid down, and can co-operate through social exclusion and marginalization. These dividing practices (Foucault, 1974: 49) have been used to legitimate actions. Today oppression and cultural injustice to the disability group have become entrenched. By legalizing practices such as those of home-based education, the government has tried to get relieved of its responsibility of providing education to the disabled. Also the continuance of such practices has suited the governments’ resource allocation for this group. This would need a major economic and social transformation to change attitudes to develop equality in education. This is specially so when the majority of families with disability are powerless in the grip of poverty and deprivation, their powerlessness leading to an unquestionable compliance with .societal norms The question then remains one of moral and ethical policy decision: Should India prioritize the needs of the normal child as the most urgent and postpone the decision to include the disabled child until such time as all normal children are in the school? What is the ethical and moral position India wishes to take in its explanation of the 1 1 Canadian International Journal of Social Science and Education Volume 10, January2017 exclusion from basic welfare services? What kind of society do we want? Is this cultural injustice in keeping with the spirit of the Constitution? The values of egalitarianism, social justice and moral ethics are values that need to have proper .recognition in a society BIBLIOGRAPHY Alur, Mithu. 2009. Inclusive education Across Cultures. India: Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd Alur, Mithu.2002. Education and Children with Special Needs. India: Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd Abberley, Paul. 1987. ‘The Concept of Oppression and Development of Social theory of Disability’ Disability, Handicap and Society, Vol.2 )1):5-18 Addlakha, Renu. 2009.‘Gender, subjectivity and sexual identity: how young people with disabilities conceptualise the body, sex and marriage in urban India’,www.cwds.ac.in/OCPaper/genderSubjectivity-Renu-ocpaper.pdf (Last )accessed on 24 April 2016 Ahmed, R., 2014. Legal and Policy Response to Right to Education for Children with .Disabilities in India. J. Nat'l LU Delhi, 2, p.85 Aggarwal, J.C., 2009. Landmarks In The History Of Modern Indian Education, 6E. .Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd Booth, T. and Ainscow, M. (1998) (Eds.), From them to us: An international study of .inclusion in education. London: Routledge Bhattacharya, T., 2010. Re-examining issue of inclusion in education. Economic and .Political Weekly, pp.18-25 .Evans, Mary.2002. Real Bodies: A Sociological Introduction. New York: Palgrave Ghai, Anita. 2006. ‘Education in a globalizing era: Implications for disabled girls’, Social Change, Vol.36 (3):161-176 .Foucault, M., 1977. Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Vintage Ghosh, N., 2012. Disabled Definitions, Impaired Policies: Reflections on Limits of .Dominant Concepts of Disability Garland-Thomson, R. 1997. Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability in .American Culture and Literature. New York. Columbia University Press Jha, ε.ε.2006. ‘Inclusive Education in the context of Common Schools: A question of Equity , Social Justice and School Reforms’, Pp 266-295. In Kumar. Ravi Ed, .Crisis of Elementary Education in India. New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd Kumar, K., Priyam, M. and Saxena, S., 2001. Looking beyond the smokescreen: .DPEP and primary education in India. 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